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CONTENTS• 


ROADS ... , . 

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

• , i 


i 

i 


ADVANTAGES OF GOOD ROADS-... . 15 

REQUISITES OF A GOOD ROAD. 19 

1-Alignment. ... 19 

*.20 


1 

5.Cross-section................. 25 

{ 1 ) Entire Width ... 25 

{ 2) Sur faced Width ............. 26 

( 3 ) Shape of Cross~=sect ion * . . . . 28 

4 .Drainage,. • 30 

5 .Surface .. 32 

6 .Cost..... . 38 

(1) Cost of Construction• ..38 

(2) Cost of Maintenance....,... 39 

{3} Cost of Operating......... 39 

{4 ) Revenue .. 39 

LOCATION .. 44 


/ 


1. Reconnaissance . 

2. Preliminary........ 

3. Location........... 

CONSTRUCTION... 

1«Orading * *•■ * ° * 

2.Structures ......... 

.(1) Retaining Walls. 

{2 ) Culverts. 

(a) Wood. ....*• * 

{t) Stone » 


. . . 45 

- , » 46 

. . . 49 
. . • 52 
■ . . 53 

. . . 67 

• a . r 68 

. . . 69 

71 

- - • 73 


e 




















i 


* • n 


* ♦ $ 4 


« « * * 


* s •* * » e s 


* W «» * * 4 « 


» * * <» <•* e 


° C »''• • • • • » * « ♦ !>«<►♦* 


* a * .* * © * r k *. ^ 


r c: c 


« s a o * • 


ill 

(c) Concrete or Be ton.. 

( d) Br 1 ek 
(e J Pipe * 

{3} Bridges 
(a) Wood* 

{ o ) Iron , > - . ... 

{ e } Wood and Iron Combined. 
Id) Stone 
f 4 ) Drains„* 

ROAD COVERING - . ,. 
l.&artn* » « * » » * 

2.Broken Stone 
f11 Macadam -« 

{ 2 ) Telford ...... . 

(3) Quality of Stone.... . 

(4) Stone Breaking and 

Stone Breakers. 

(5) Road Belling and 

Road Rollers .. 

(6) Modifications of Macadam 

and .Telford 


3 & 9 9 & V <» 9 * J! ***#&« 


C«' •* 9 ' "K v v 


74 

75 

76 

76 

77 
79 
81 
32 
82 
as 


87 

as 

90 

QIK 


» ■» * « « 


97 


.105 


{7} Maintenance and Repair... 


■ ’ll! 
> 113 


3.Gravel * - 
4 . Corduroy 
5.PIank.... 
6 Charcoal - 
7 .Shell.... 


fi » 


* .12 


o 


9 * f 9 


9 9 


* * » 


» *• 


. 12S 
-125 
-127 
. 126 







iv 


STREETS .. 129 

ARRAJiGEME 1 IT...,., l29 

0 RAbL * j ... . . , r i 3 i 

CROSS-SECTION. . . . ... . . _ 132 

SURFACE OF ROADWAY # ,i 55 

1 ' H&l Gil f t 

2.Broken Stone.. *.-.... /.135 

<*> G*r<a \f ex • - » - - .- - - - . . . i . . 136 

k - PlO-ilk --■***» e * * » . 0 . . i * 130 

5 > Shell , - * , , . . „ . 1 %p 

6 Cobble Stone , . 137 

7 .Rubble Stone.. . .. 139 

8 . S tone Block. . * .. , .. 140 

Providence >R»I. . * ..147 

Chicago.Ill . . , - ... 155 

Buffalo ,N,Y : , , .162 

^Liverpool ? Eng...............167 

9 .Wood Block . ..... 168 

Nicholson...... . ... „ .174 

Stowe . ... . . 175 

Henson * s .......... .. 17 6 

Lloyd r s. . . . «. . . . 176 

Asphaltic. - - . » . « - -177 

Cedar Block? Chicago* Ill -177 
Cedar Block, Duluth- Minn *♦185 
10 * 13r x ek • * * * » . * • • - • • « » . « » • • jlB 3 

Memphis Tenn- - - .........185 

Topeka ? Kas ... ^ 190 







V 


Davenport . -Iowa.. . . . 

11 Asphalt■ , , ,. 

(1) Sheet... 

Sicilian Rods Asphalt..., 
Barber Asphalt (“Class a). 


■ .193 
. .193 
. ■ 194 
- .202 
. ,207 


Barber Asphalt ?Class F )..,,211 


C 2) Block.. 

12-Coal Tar.,,.. 
FOOTPATHS.. 

1.Earth.. 

2 -Broken Stone ... . 


f' 3 * * -c 


* 9 O 




** e © z 


y * ? m < - 6 






d * * 


• 4 1 4 


211 
212 
. ,217 
. 217 
217 


5•Gravel 
4,Plank . 
5 . Br I ck . 


o 1 O 

219 


S ’ St OjflO 222 

7 * Cement Concrete.. .223 


8 «Asp&aXt. 


» • * 


.224 


9 - Coal Tar . . ,'... 230 

CURBS AMD QUTIERS.. 233 

Miles of Pavement in Various Cities 
Cost of Pavements per Square Yard- 
3ooks and Articles on Subjects Re¬ 
lating to Highways. 






















































































ROADS. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH• 

Very little is known in regard to the 
early history of road building- That 
the ancient Egyptians and Jews had roads 
of somd kind is evident from the fact 
that chariots were used by both nations. 
The invention of paved roads is credited 
to the Carthaginians. 

The earliest roads of which anything 
definite is known are those of the Ro¬ 
mans- Thirty-one of these are said to 
have terminated in the city of Rome. 

They were built mainly for military pur¬ 
poses vand it is largely due to their 
existance that Rome maintained for so 
long a time her position as ruler of the 
known world. The manner of constructing 
these roads was as follows:- Two paral¬ 
lel trenches were first cut to mark the 
width of thd road. Then the loose earth 
between these was removed until a solid 
foundation was readned. The earth was 
then replaced by proper materials, con-' 3 
solidated by ramming, to form a solid 
foundation for the covering which con¬ 
sisted of four layers* 

The first layer (Statumen) was com- 


/ 



I 























































































2 . 


posed of two or three courses of flat 
stones laid in mortar and had a thick¬ 
ness of about 11 inches. The second lav- 
er (Rucius ) was composed of rubble mason¬ 
ry of smaller stones, or a coarse con- 
crete, add. was consolidated by ramming. 
This course had a thickness of about 8 
inches. The third layer (Nucleus) was 
made of a finer concrete>sometimes com¬ 
posed of broken bricks, tile and pottery 
mixed with mortar,and had a thickness of 
about 12 inches. The surface layer (Sum- 
ma Crusta) was a pavement of polygonal 
blocks of stone,6 inches thick,fitted 
together very carefully. On rock the two 
lower layers were omitted. On marshy 
ground the road was built on a framework 
of timber. Sometimes the pavement was o- 
mitted*and in this case the surface lay¬ 
er was composed of a hard concrete macie 
of a mixture of pebbles and mortar. Clay 
was sometimes used instead of mortar. 

The paved portion of these roads was 16 
feet wide,with a footpath on either side 
8 feet wide,separated from the main road 
by stone causeways 2 feet wide* 

The Roman roans ran almost invariably 
in straight lines and with nearly uni-- 










3 . 

form grades. Hills and mountains were 
cut through and valleys crossed either 
on embankments or stone arches, Kile 
posts were erected showing distances 
from Rome, and at intervals, blocks of 
stone were placed to assist horsemen in 
mounting. These roads were all more or 
less adorned with tombs and monuments, 

So solid was the construction of these 
roads that in Some places they can be 
traced for miles even at the present day 
some of them forming the foundation for 
more modern roads and in some cases the 
original surface is still in use. 

One pf the oldest of these, the Appian 
Way, was begun in 312 B.C. It was 
first built to Capua, 130 miles, then 
the boundary of Roman territory- It was 

afterwards extended to Brundusium, mak- 

! 

ing the entire length 342 miles. Another 
famous road? the Flaminian Way. extended 
from Rome a distance of 180 miles along 
the Adriatic Sea. On this road was an 
arch of 150 feet span and 100 feet rise. 
Other famous roads were the Aurelian, 
Emilian. Valerian and Claudian- The Ro¬ 
man roads were not confined to Italy a- 
lone hut remains of them are to he found 





4 . 


in France, Germany and England. In fact 
wherever the Roman Legions went, there 
they built these almost imperishable 
roads . 

In quite another part of the world 
there lived at an early period, a race 
of road builders, whose work rivaled 
that of the Romans in solidity of con¬ 
struction. They were the Incas of Peru 
and two of their roans are thus described, 
by Prescott. 

''One of these roads passed over the 
grand plateau, and the other along the 
lowlands on the borders of the ocean. 

The former was much the more difficult 
achievement, from the character of the 
country. It was conducted over pathless 
sierras buried in snow; galleries were 
cut for leagues through the living rock; 
rivers were crossed by means of bridges 
that swung suspended in the air; preci¬ 
pices were scaled by stairways hewn out 
of the native bed; ravines of hideous 
depth were filled, up with solid masonry; 
in short, all the difficulties that be¬ 
set a wild and mountainous region, and 
which, might appall the most courageous 
engineer of modern times, were eneount- 











5 . 


ered and successfully overcome. The 
length of road, of which scattered frag¬ 
ments only remain, is variously estimat- 

# 

ed, from fifteen hundred to two thousand 
miles; and stone pillars, in the manner 
of European mile-stones, were erected at 
stated intervals of somewhat more than a 
league, all along the route. Its 
breadth scarcely exceeded twenty feet. 

It was built of heavy flags of freestone 
and in some parts, at least, covered 
with a bituminous cement, v/hich time has 
made harder than the stone itself. In 
some places, where the ravines had been 
filled up with masonry, the mountain 
torrents wearing on it for ages have 
gradually eaten a way through the base, 
and left the superincumbent mass - such 
is the cohesion of the materials - still 
spanning the valley like an arch* 

Over some of the boldest streams it 
was neqessary to construct suspension 
bridges, as they are termed* made of the 
tough fibres of the maguey, or of the 
osier of the country, which has an ex¬ 
traordinary degree of tenacity and 
strength. These osiers were woven into 

cables of the thickness of a man's body. 



i 


/ 




/ 






V 







6 . 

The huge ropes,then stretched across 
the water , were conducted through rings 
or'holes cut in the immense buttresses 
of stone raised on the opposite banks of 
the river > and there secured to heavy- 

pieces of timber. Several of these e- 
normous cables, bound together, formed a 

bridge, which, covered with planks, well 

$ , 

secured, and defended by a railing of the 
same osier material on the sides afford¬ 
ed a safe passage for the traveller. The 
length of this aerial bridge, sometimes 
exceeding two hundred feet, caused it, 
confined, as it was, only at the extrem¬ 
ities, to dip with an alarming inclina¬ 
tion toward the centre, while the motion 
given to it by the passenger occasioned 
an oscillation still more frightful, as 
his eye wandered over the dark abyss of 
waters that foamed and tumbled many a 
fathom ben.eath. Yet these light and 
fragile fabrics were crossed without 
fear by the Peruvians, and are still re¬ 
tained by the Spaniards over those 
streams which, from the depth and impet¬ 
uosity of the current would seem imprac¬ 
ticable for the usual modes of convey- 
The wider and more tranquil 


anc e. 











t 















7 . 

waters were crossea on balsas - a kind 
of raft still usea by the natives - to 
which sails were attached> furnishing 
the only instance of this higher kind of 
navigation among the American Indians. 

''The other great road of the Incas 
lay through the level country between 
the Andes and the ocean. It was qon- 
structed in a different manner, as de¬ 
manded by the nature of the ground* 
whiC‘1 was for the most part low, and 
much of it sandy* The causeway was 
raised on a high embankment of earth, 
and defended on either side by a parapet 
or wall of clay; and trees and odorifer¬ 
ous shrubs were planted along the mar¬ 
gin, regaling the sense of the traveller 
with their shades, so grateful under the 
burning sky of the tropics. In the 
strips of sandy waste, which occasional* 
ly intervened, where the light and vola¬ 
tile soil was incapable of sustaining a 
read, huge piles, many of them to be 
seen at this day, were driven into the 
ground to indicate the route to the 
traveller *' 5 

The Incas travelled always on foot >but 
these roads are said to have been so 









8 . 

well constructed tlie.t carriages could 
have teen used on them in most parts 
with perfect safety. 

Humboldt says that ’ ’the roads of the 
Incas were among the most useful and 
stupendous works ever executed by nan.' 1 

uike the Roman roads > the roads of the 
Incas were built mainly for military 
purposes- A system of posts for carry¬ 
ing despatches was in use on these roads. 
At intervals of about five miles, small 
buildings were erected in each of which 
were several trained runners, These 
runners were employed in carrying for¬ 
ward government despatches> which they 
did at the rate of one hundred and fifty 
miles a day., 

After the fall of the Roman Empire, 
the roads which she had left to her 
provinces were allowed to go to ruin. 

In France and England* until the latter 
part of the eighteenth century, the 
roads were in very had shape. 

The condition of the English roads be- 

y 

fore this time is well described by sev¬ 
eral writers. In speaking of the 
state of the roads in England in 1685 



9 . 

Macaulay says - "on the best lines of 
communication the ruts were deep, the 
descents precipitous, and the way often 
such as it was hardly possible to dis¬ 
tinguish, in the dusk, from the unen¬ 
closed heath and fen which lay on both 
sides." He speaks of several cases 
where people lost their way while trav¬ 
elling in their own coaches. In speaking 
of the road through Wales to Holyhead,he 

was the custom to 

take carriages to pieces and carry them 
to the Menai Straits. In some parts 
of England the roads were so had that 
six hours were required to travel a dis¬ 
tance of nine miles. The expense of 
carrying heavy loads long distances was 
very great, being about thirty cents a 
ton for every mile. Fruits would rot on 
the ground at one place, while at anoth¬ 
er a fe*r miles distant, the supply fell 
rar short of the demand. Goal was not 
used except near where it was mined or 
on the sea coast or navigable rivers, on 
account of the expense of hauling. 

Arthur Young> in his 'Six Months' 

Tour 5 9 published in 1770, says, in 
speaking of one of the roads ~ 9 'I know 











10 . 

not in the whole i*ange of language terms 
sufficient?.^ expressive to describe tnis 
infernal road* Let me most seriously 
caution all travellers who may accident¬ 
ally purposeto travel this terrible 
country to avoid it as they would tne 
devil; for a thousand to one they break 
their necks or their limbs by overthrows 
or breakings down. They will here meet 
with ruts» which I actually measured 
four feet deep, and floating with mud 
only from a wet summer - What therefore 
must it be after a winter? The only 
mending it receives is tumbling in some 
loose stones which serve no other pur- 

i 

pose than jolting a carriage in the most 
intolerable manner. These are not mere¬ 
ly opinions but facts; for I actually 
passed three carts broken down in those 
eighteen miles of execrable memory.* 1 
Of another road he says - 9 9 A more 
dreadful road cannot be imagined. 1 was 
obliged to hire two men at one place to 
support my chaise from overturning. Let 
me persuade all travellers to avoid this 
terrible country which must either dis¬ 
locate their bones with broken pavements 







——__ 



or bury them in muddy sands. 8 ' 

Throughout England the condition of 

the roads was very little improved un~ 

til the latter part of the eighteenth 
century. 

The first English road builder of any 
note was John Metcalf. He was very suc- 
cessful in constructing roads over bogs 
where a solid foundation could not be 
obtained. 

After him came Macadam who. although 
he did not claim to be an engineer, con¬ 
structed roads on scientific principals 
had dia much to improve the condition of 
the English roads. 

Contemporary with Macadam was Telford* 
who seems to have been the first trained 
civil engineer in England who engaged in 
road building. 

In the United States, up to the begin¬ 
ning of the present century, there was 
hardly a good road. In the early part 
of the present century a large number of 
turnpike roads were constructed * princi¬ 
pally in the northern states. Some of 
these were built at great expense and 
were carefully constructed. Some of the 
roads built in Massachusetts cost as 











































































































































t 






























much as $14,000 per mile. The best 
Toads ran irom Boston to Salem, Newbury - 
port ana Providence. in New York a road 
was Quilt oetween Albany and Syracuse at 
an expense of $10,000 per mile. During 
this period many turnpikes were also 
constructed in Pennsylvania, New Jersey 
and Maryland * 

Numerous bills for national aid to 
roads were proposed, some of which were 
passed. The only work that was carried 
out systematically was the construction 
of the Cumberland National Road, which 
was built from Washington to Wheeling, 
afterwards to Columbus and Vandalia. It 
was proposed to extend it to Jefferson 
City, but this last section was not 
built. 

Notwithstanding the great improvements 
that were accomplished at this time, 
there were yet but few good roads in the 
country. David Stevenson, an English 
engineer! who made a trip through North 
America in 1337 says 11 On the road 
leading from Pittsburgh on the Ohio to 
the town of Erie on the lake of that 
name, I saw all the varieties of forest 







13. 

road making in great perfection. Some¬ 
times our road, lay for miles through ex¬ 
tensive marshes, which re crossed by 
corduroy roads, formed of trees cut in 
lengths of about 10 or 12 feet and laid 

close to each other across the road to 

\ 

prevent the vehicles from sinking; at 
others the coach stuck fast in the mud, 
from which it could be extricated only 
by the combined efforts of the coachman 
and passengers, and at one place we 
travelled for upwards of a quarter of a 
mile through a forest flooded with water 
which stood to a height of several feet 
on the trees, and occasionally covered 
the naves of the coach wheels. The dis¬ 
tance of the route from Pittsburgh to 
Erie is 128 miles which was accomplished 
in 46 hours, being at the very slow rate 
of two and three quarters miles an hour, 
although the conveyance by which I trav¬ 
elled carried the mails and stopped only 
for breakfast, dinner and tea, but there 
was considerable delay caused by the 
coach being once upset and several times 

milled. 3 * 

That the roads in the United States 
arc.'not equal to those of Europe is 



largely due to the fact that in the old¬ 
er countries of Europe the roads were 
improved "before the railroad came into 
use, while in this country, the need of 
improved means of communication was not 
seriously felt until the railroad came, 
and this was so much superior to the 
common road for long distances that it 
has been brought to the greatest perfec¬ 
tion and the common road neglected. At 
the present time the United States is 
noted for having the poorest roads of 
any civilised country. The descriptions 
of the condition of the roads in England 
in the seventeenth ana eighteenth cent¬ 
uries would admirably fit many of the 
roads of the United States at the pres¬ 
ent time. Within the last few years, 
however, the people of this country have 
begun to realise the advantages of good 
roads, state legislatures have begun to 
take action looking toward the improve¬ 
ment of roads, engineers are paying more 
attention to the subject than formerly, 
and it is to be hoped that the next few 
years will witness a marked improvement 
in the common roads of this country. 



15 . 


ADVANTAGES OF GOOD ROADS. 

Macaulay says - '’Of all inventions 
the alphabet and the printing press a- 
lone excepted» those inventions which a- 
bridge distance have done most for the 
civilisation of our species.’' 

As we glance at the history of the 
world. we see that the nations that have 
had the highest form of civilisation, 
have been those nations that possessed 
the best means of communication. One 
writer has said - ''Let us travel over 
all the countries of the earth, and 
whenever we shall find no facility for 
travelling from a city to a town, or 
from a village to a hamlet, we may pro¬ 
nounce the people to be barbarians' 

Every improvement in the highways of 
a country benefits the people not only 
socially, but also commercially. Roads 
are the tributaries of railroaas. Nearly 
every pound of freight that is carried 
over a railroad must be hauled to and 
from the railroad over the common roads 
or streets. It has been claimed by some 
that the improvement of the common roads 
would be a disadvantage to railroads, 


































•V 











16 » 

as some of the freight and passengers 
now carried by the railroads would then 
be carried on the highways, it is 
doubtless true that the railroad would 
lose some business in this way, such as 
that between cities situated but a few 
miles apart; but it is equally true that 
they would gain on the whole, on account 
of the increased production and general 
prosperity which would inevitably follow 
any great improvement in the common 
roads. 

Every improvement in the roads diverg¬ 
ing from a market increases the area 
tributary to the market- If on one road 
a horse can haul a thousand pounds, and 
on another two thousand pounds, it is 
evident that the cost of transporting 
goods on the latter road will be only 
one half of that on the former. Hence 
on the good road an article can be pro¬ 
duced with profit at a distance from 
market twice as great as on the poor 
road. 

The value of farm lands is determined 
to a great extent by the proximity to 
market. Land situated ten miles from 
market on the good road is as valuable. 


/ 










I 



for agricultural purposes, as that at a 
distance of. only five miles on the poor 
road = Prof* denies, in his ' *Road legis¬ 
lation for the American State 8 ', esti¬ 
mates that even good dirt roads in the 
state of Illinois would increase the 
value of the farming land at least |5 
per acre, making a total increase of 
§160,000,000 for the state. 

It has been estimated that on the road 

of Illinois a full load can be hauled 

for three months in the year, two thirds 

for three months and only one half a 

load for the other six months. From 

this. Prof* Jenks estimates that the 

* . 

loss to the state of Illinois due to the 
waste of animal power alone is over 
§15»000>000 per year- 

With permanent roads* the farmer could 
select for going to market such times as 
he could most conveniently spare from 
his farm work instead of being obliged 
to go only at the time when the roaas 
are in good condition, which usually is 
at that season of the year when the farm 
work is most urgent. 

Rough roads tend to wear put vehicles 
much more ciuickly than smooth roads» and 






1 o 

•Us..* 5 

are also very injurious to horses. 

Good country roads are a benefit not 
only to the country through which they 
pass, but also to the cities and towns 
which serve as markets for the products 
of the country.* For with a decrease in 
the cost of hauling to market , the price 
to the consumer will be less, the saving 
in the cost being divided between the 
producer and consumer. 

The advantages of good roads may be 
summed ux> briefly as follows; - They 
practically shorten disteoices, enhance 
the value of land? decrease the cost of 
hauling articles, hence increase the 
profits of the producer and decrease the 
cost to the consumer- 










19 . 


REQUISITES OF A GOOD ROAD. 

Before passing to the location and. 
copstruction of roads, let us endeavor 
to get a clear idea, of the requisites of 
a good road. We shall consider these in 
regard to the following points;- 

1. Alignment. 

2. Grade. 

3. Cross-section. 

4. Drainage. 

5. Surface. 

6. Cost • 

1. Alignment. Other things Being e- 
qual a road should Be straight. Every 
deviation from a straight line increases 
the length, thereby increasing the cost 
of construction and maintenance, time 
and labor of travelling over it, and the 
wear and tear of vehicles. It is better 
however to deviate from a straight line 
to avoid steep grades which will be dis¬ 
cussed farther on. An exception to the 
rule that a road should Be straight 
ought to be made in the case of pleasure 
drives. Here the purpose for which the 
road is built is best served by deviat¬ 
ing from the straight line as much as 
possible• 















20 . 

2. Grade. The grade or slope of a 

I 

road is the ratio of tne rise to the 
distance in which the rise occurs. It 
may be expressed in several different 
ways. 

1st. As a common fraction having 1 for 
the numerator and the horizontal dis¬ 
tance in which the road rises 1 foot as 
the denominator, thus; 1/125, often 
written 1 in 125 or 1 to 125. . 

2nd. As a certain number of feet to the 
mile, thus; 42,24 feet to the mile. 

3rd. As a per cent, thus; 0.8 per cent 
sometimes written simply 0.8, though not 
strictly correct. 

4th. As a decimal fraction the equiva¬ 
lent of the common fraction of the first 
method thus, 0.003. 

Of these methods the first is perhaps 
the oftanest used in regard to roads, 
and the third, in this country at least, 
in regard to railroads. 

Other things being equal a good road 

o r 

should be 1evel.^should have a uniform 
grade between its termini. The re¬ 
sistance due to grade is equal to the 
load multiplied by, the grade. In fig.2. 



21 . 

let AB represent the surface of a road 
with a load DE resting on it. If ab 
represents graphically the weight of the 
load* then ac will represent the compo¬ 
nent of the load perpendicular to the 
slope AB» or the pressure on the surface, 
and be will represent the force necessa¬ 
ry to overcome the grade. Represent ab 
by W, and be by F, then since the trian¬ 
gles abc hnd ABC are similar* 

F ‘ W :: BC : AB whence F - W.BC * AB 
or* as AC is practically the same as AB 
unless the slope is very steep, we have 
approximately F : W.BC * AC ^ut 
BC t AC is the grade which we will call 
G- Hence we have F= WG 

Maximum Grade. In considering the 
maximum grade allowable on a road* the 
problem is somewhat different from that 
in the case of a railroad. On a rail¬ 
road* any grade, no matter how small* 
d veer eases the load that can be hauled* 
as a locomotive cannot exert for a short 
time a force greater than its average 
power. On a road the effect of a short 
grade is not so bad* as a horse can ex¬ 
ert for a short time a force equal to 
two or three times his average power. 




I 


22 . 

Let us assume that a horse can exert 
twice his average power for a short 
grade. Then if we represent by R the 
resistance of any load, W, on the level 
surface,the maximum grade allowable 
without decreasing the load will be 
found by substituting R for F in the a- 
bove formula, and we have R - wg or 
G = R*W 

o 

For a good broken stone road we sh.aH 
see farther on that the resistance per 
ton is about 50 lbs. and on a good earth 
road about 80 lbs. Then for a broken 
stone road the maximum grade allowable 
will be .025 or 1 in 40> and fo v an 
earth road -04 or 1 in 25. Although it 
is advisable to keep the grade as low as 
this, yet it is sometimes impracticable* 
and it may be made steeper for very 
short distances without materially de¬ 
creasing the load that can be hauled 
over it, for there is no doubt that a 
horse can for a short time, exert a 
force more than twice as great as the 
usual amount. 

The investigation we have just been 
making applies to a load ascending, let 
as now see what the maximum grade should 








































. 


* 













be from the consideration of a descend¬ 
ing load. If possible the grade should 
not be steeper than that at which a load 
is just on the point of rolling down 
hill by its own weight alone, called the 
grade of repose. This is R * w,the same 
as we found for the maximum grade as¬ 
cending. or .025 for a broken stone, and 
.04 for an earth road. With a steeper 
vr«de than this there is a certain a- 
mount of danger from the load pressing 
upon the horses. With these grades a 
horse can safely trot down hill. 

From this investigation we see that 
the smoother the road surface, the 
easier the grades should be . A steeper 
grade can be used on an earth road than 
on a broken stone road without decrease 
ing the load that can be hauled on the 
level road. The grades we have given 
here are what we should strive to obtain. 
It is often necessary however to use 
steeper grades- 

The maximum established by the French 
government Engineers was 1 in 20. but 
this was at a time when the surface of 
roads was not as smooth as at the pre¬ 
sent time. 



The maximum used bv Telford on the 
Holyhead road, built through the moun¬ 
tains of Wales, was 1 in 30, except in 
two cases where 1 in 22, and 1 in 17 
were used. 

The maximum on the Simplon road over 
the Alps is 1 ixi 22 on the Italian, and 
1 in 17 on the Swiss side, becoming 1 in 
13 in one case. 

The cost of maintenance of a nearly 
level road 4s much less than that of one 
with steep grades. This is due to the 
increased wear caused by the feet of 
horses in going up and down steep hills, 
ana by the use of trigs behind the 
wheels, to keep them from rolling, when 
horses stop to rest in ascending a hill. 

It has been claimed by some that a 
level road is not as easy for a horse as 
one with undulating grades. There seems 
ho\^ever, to be no foundation for this 
theory and it is discarded by modern 
writers. The level road is the best for 
the horse, 

¥e have said that a road should be as 
nearly level as possible. This is 
strictly true as far as traction is con- 

v 

cerned, but there is another thing that 



25 . 

must bo considered, and that is drainage. 
For drainage there should be a certain 
minimum longitudinal slope to prevent 
water standing on the surface. A slope 
of 1 in 125 is recommended as the mini¬ 
mum . 

3- Cross-section. The cross-section 
may be considered under the following 
heads , - 

(1) Entire width or Right of Way, 

(2) Surfaced width or Hoadway. 

(3) Shape of Roadway. 

(1) The entire width of a road, some¬ 
times called the Right of Way, should be 
sufficient to accomodate any increase in 
traffic which is likely to occur. The 
width should be sufficient to allow for 
the construction of good side ditches, 
and footpaths where necessary, and for 
side slopes of cuts and fills. About 
tile only disadvantage of increasing the 
width is in the cost of the land. 

The entire width of the roads in many 
of the western states,where the land is 
divided into sections, is 4 rods or 66 
f eet. 

The French roads are divided into four 
classes, ranging from 35 to 66 feet in 



width.. 



Telford's Holyhead road has a width 
between fences of 52 feet on flat ground 

and 22 feet along steep ground and prec- 
ipices. 

Tiie United States National Hoad, lias a 
total width of 80 feet. 

In the state of New York public roads 
are not less than 3 rods or 49 1/2 feet 
wide * 

(2) The surfaced width of a road,which 
we will designate as the roadway, should 
be as small as will accomodate the traf¬ 
fic . The wear of a road is due to two 
causes, traffic and weather. Sir J.Mae- 
neill estimated that» on the average, 
twenty per cent, of the wear of a broken 
stone roau was clue to the weather. The 
wear due to the traffic is practically 
the same, whatever the wid.th of the road, 
within reasonable limits? but the wear 
due to the weather is proportional to 
the width* Hence it i$ advisable to 
keep the road as narrow as possible? as 
every extra foot of width means an in¬ 
crease not only in cost of.construction 
but also in cost of maintenance. 

The width of a roadway should seldom 








27 . 

if ever be less than enough to allow two 
vehicles to pass each other easily, 
which requires about 16 feet. This is 
enough for all roads except the most im¬ 
portant where there is a very large 
traffic. For these a width of 25 feet, 
which will allow three, or 30 feet.which 
will allow four vehicles abreast, may be 
used- Near large cities a farther in¬ 
crease may be necessary to 40 feet or 
even more. On sharp curves the width 
should be slightly more than on straight 
lines. 

Sometimes where broken stone is used 
for a covering, the center of the road 
for a width of 16 feet is covered with 
the stone, or road metal as it is called, 
and the sides or wings are left with the 
natural earth surface*. It is doubtful, 
however, if this is advisable, as vehi¬ 
cles in passing from the earth surface 
to the stones will carry, in wet weather, 
a great amount of nud, thereby injuring 
the surface of the stone covering. 

The Roman roads had a width of 12 to 
16 feet. 

The French roadways range in width 
from 16 to 22 feet. 





28. 

The roadway of the United States Na¬ 
tional Road is 30 feet. 

(3) The shape of the cross-section of 
the roadway has always been a disputed 
point. For ease of travel, a perfectly 
level cross-section is of course the 
best, but , to allow the water which 
falls on the surface to find its way 
readily to the ditches, it is necessary 
to give a certain amount of crown, that 
is, to make the center a certain amount 
higher than the sides. Two forms of 
cross-section are used, as shown in Fig, 
1. One of these. A* consists of tv/o 
straight lines joined by a short curve 
at the center, the other, B, consists of 
a continuous curve from side to side, 
usually an arc of a circle. Both of 
these forms have their advocates among 
engineers, but the former seems to carry 
the weight of opinion. 

The chief objection to the curved sec¬ 
tion is that the center is nearly’- flat, 
thus preventing the water from flowing 
off readily. Another objection some¬ 
times made to the curved section is, 
that the slope is so steep near the 
sides that vehicles will seek the center 













29 . 


to prevent overturning, thereby causing 
excessive wear in one place. This ob¬ 
jection, however, is hardly worth con¬ 
sidering as, with a good surface, the a- 
mount of crown is so slight that there 
is no danger from this source. The only 
point worth considering is that of 
drainage. 

Fig.l A shows a half section of a road. 
50 feet wide with a transverse slope of 
1 in 50, and Fig.l B, a half section of 
a road 50 feet wide, having the same 
crown as in Fig.l A, but formed by an 
arc of a circle. Fig.l C, in which the 
two are placed together, shows how 
slight the difference is between them. 

The slope shown in the figure, 1 in 50 
is one that is often given to a broken 
stone road- •It was used by Telford on 
the Holyhead road.. Macadam used 1 in 56 
ana even 1 in 60, For a rough road 1 in 
20 may be used. The transverse slope 
should increase with the grade or longi¬ 
tudinal slope so as to prevent the sur¬ 
face water from running very far down 
the road before being discharged to the 
sides. 

T/here a road curves sharply it is best 




30 . 

to Have a single slope falling toward 
tile inside of the curve to counter-bal- 
ance the centrifugal force. This form 
is oxten used on steep side-hill roads. 

4:. Drainage. One of the most impor¬ 
tant requisi ces of a good, road is thor — 
ough drainage. Without proper drainage 
a road.' cannot he kept in good condition* 
We may consider the question of drainage 
in regard to - 

(1) The water which flows toward the 

road * 

(2) The water which falls on the sur¬ 
face of the road? 

(3) The water which finds its way be¬ 
neath the surface. 

(1) The water which flows toward the 
road may be either in the form of 
streams? which flow perpetually, or it 
may be the water from the surface of the 
ground? which comes only at the time of 
storms or of the melting of the snow. 

The streams must be provided for by 
culverts or bridges which will allow 
them to pass under the road and follow 
their natural course* 

The storm water from the surface of 
the ground does not usually come in a 





























51 . 

coxicentvated lorui like the streams, but 
must be collected in side ditches paral¬ 
lel to the road and carried along to 
some natural water course as quickly as 
possible. These ditches should if pos¬ 
sible, have a slope of 1 in 125. 

(2) The crowning of the surface of the 
road to prevent water standing on it has 
already been discussed- The water from 
this source is received by the side 
ditches and carried away with that from 
the surface of the ground* 

When there is a footpath at the side 
of the road there should be a gutter 
between it and the carriage way, and the 
main ditch Should be outside the foot¬ 
path- The water from the road surface 
will then be received by the gutter and 
carried, at short intervals,through small 
drains under the footpath to the ditch. 
The footpath should be given a slope 
toward the gutter to allow the waver .o 
flow off . 

(5) It is very often the case that wa¬ 
ter collects beneath the surface of a 
road either by soaking through the cov¬ 
ering or from springs below the surface. 
This should be carefully considered and 



provision made for removing it thorough¬ 
ly. For this purpose under-drains of 
stone or tile ( the construction of 
which will be described later) are often 
required. These should lead into the 
side ditches which should be made deep 
enough to receive them. When these un¬ 
der-drains are used, the drain under the 
footpath , connecting the gutter with 
the side ditch* is not needed, but the 
water from the gutter is carried direct¬ 
ly into the sub-drains by a vertical 
shaft. 

5= Surface. In order that the force 
required to draw a load shall be as 
small as possible, the road should have 
a smooth and hard surface. 

The resistances to be overcome in 
drawing a load over a level road are - 

(1) Collision, 

(2) Friction. 

(1) Collision. On a rough road, cr a 
road covered with loose stones, a great 
amount of foi'ce is expendea in lilting 
the wheels over the projections and 
stones which they encounter. 

In Fig.3* let P be an obstacle over 
which it is necessary to draw a wheel 






























33 • 

carrying a load, W, Let F be the force 
required to do this work, the amount of 
which we wish to find. 

Taking moments of the <*orcesF and W 
about the point E, we have 
F.ED » W-EB or F « W.EB ♦ ED 
But ED = R - h, r being the radius of 
wheel and h the height of the obstacle, 
and EB= V R* -{ED f * V -R‘+2Rh-di = ^Rh-h 1 
Kenc e F®WV/2Rh-h?- * ( R-h ) 

If H » 24 inches, and, h = 2 inches, 
and ¥ = 1000 lbs. than F » 436 lbs. 

Mow the force required to draw this load 
over a smooth broken stone road is 25 
lbs. or only one seventeenth that neces¬ 
sary to draw it over an obstacle 2 in. 
high* 

F, in the above demonstration,is the 
force required to draw the wheel over 

the obstacle provided it is just start¬ 
ing from a condition of rest. As a 
wheel moves along with a certain momen¬ 
tum, the effect of such obstacles is 
only to partially destroy that momentum. 

If the obstacle is a loose stone the 
effect upon the road is very injurious, 
not only on account of the impact of the 
wheel in descending, out also on account 






















































































54 . 

of the tendency of the stone to slide a- 
long the surface, due to the force,P, 
which acts parallel to the surface. 

(2) Friction* Journal frict1on, or 
the friction of the wheel upon the axle 
is dependent entirely upon the construc¬ 
tion of the vehicle, and has nothing to 
do with the construction of the road. 

Surface friction is the friction which 
exists between the tire of the wheel and 
the surface of the road. It is causea 
by the wheel sinking into the surface. 

On a road covered with mud or sand this 
friction is very large. 

When the surface of a road is covered 
with a layer of soft mud, or loose sand 
or gravel, so that the wheels sink 
through to the hard surface, the fric¬ 
tion due to the soft layer is independ¬ 
ent of the amount of the load, as the 
depth to which a wheel will sink is the 
same,whatever the amount of load, being 
the thickness of the soft stratum. If 
there is no hard sub-stratum the wheels 
will sink to a depth proportional to the 
load, and the resistance to be overcome 
will increase accordingly. 

The elasticity of the surface of a 



55 . 

road , which allows the wheel to sink in™ 
to it % hut causes it to assume its orig¬ 
inal smoothness aiT-ex 4 the wheel has 
•passed* in ay he considered as a term of* 
surface fxiction analogous to the last 
form considered- 

Xfc is impossible to calculate the re— 
sistance due to friction on a level road 
The only way in which it can he deter¬ 
mined is by experiment* Experiments 
have been made by the use of an i nstru- 
ment called a dynamometer, which is made 
on the principle of the spring balance, 

and is interposed between the horses and 

« 

the vehicle* The power required to draw 
the vehicle is registered on a dial. 

Such an instrument was used by Sir John 
Macneill and is described by Parnell in 
his Treatise on Roads, Appendix No.l. 

As the result of his experiments, he has 
given the following arbitrary formulae 
in which R is the force required to move 

the vehicle, W is the weight of vehicle, 
w is the weight of load, all expressed 

in pounds, v is the velocity in feet per 
second, and c is a constant, depending 

on the nature of the surface. 

For a stage wagon 




56 . 

R • [(W+w) * 93j-f(w * e-o ) + C v 

For a stage coach 

R « [(W-fw) * 100 J-Hvf * 40 ) +cv 

The value of c is given as follows,- 
Timber surface 2 

Paved road 2 

Well made broken stone road, dry and 
clean 5 

Well made broken stone road, covered 
with dust . 8 

Well made broken stone road, wet and 
muddy 10 

Gravel or flint road, dry and clean 15 

Gravel or flint road,wet and muddy 32 

In France, extensive experiments were 
made by Morin to determine the resist¬ 
ance on different surfaces. The conclu- 

at 

sions which he arrived as the result of 
these experiments may be stated briefly 
as follows 

The resistance to traction is directly 
proportional to the load and inversely 
proportional to the diameter of the 
wheel - 

The destruction of the road is greater 
with small wheels than with large. 

Upon soft roads the resistance de¬ 
creases as the width of the tire in- 



37 , 

creases, but upon paved or hard macadam¬ 
ized roads the resistance is practical¬ 
ly independent of the width of tire be¬ 
yond a width of 8 to 10 centimeters 
(3 1/4 to 4 inches ). 

Upon soft roads the resistance is in¬ 
dependent of the velocity, but upon 
paved or macadamized roads , it Increas¬ 
es with the velocity, above a velocity 
of a meter a second. At a walking pace 
it is the same for carriages with or 
without springs* 

At a walking pace the resistance upon 
a well paved road is about three-fourths 
that upon the best macadamized roads; 
at a trot the resistances are equal* 

The following table which has been 
prepared from the results of the experi¬ 
ments of Macneill» Morin and various 
other authorities will readily show the 
advantage of a hard and smooth road 
surface. 

Table of Resistance 
to Traction on Various Surfaces* 


Description of Surface 


Soft grass land 
Ordinary earth road 


m- O** •» «T«' I rrr cr*. f* «*• €X~ OE3 

Resistance in 
Terms of Load 

err rrr r*=- <tr~ tr- rr eu- tan 


1/7 

1/10 




































✓ 





I 






























38- 


Good earth road 
Sandy road 
Newly laid gravel 
Ordinary gravel road 
Good gravel road 
Newly laid metal 
Ordinary broken stone road 
Good broken stone road 
Cobble stone pavement 
Ordinary stone block pav 3 t 
Good stone block pavement 
Good wood pavement 
Plank road 

Asphalt pav ern en t 
dt one tramway 
Iron tramway 

y* '*“• c-v «r -** «SK> «K. «=- *0*4 Oh ^e-. 

6 Cosrt.. In considering the cost of a 
road tho-Fo are four elements that should 
be taken into account s 

(1) Cost of Construction. 

(2) Cost of Maintenance, 

(3) Cost of Operating, 

(4) Revenue, 

(1) The cost of construction includes 
the cost of making the location* the 
cost cf grading* the cost of structures, 
the cost of ditching and surfacing, and 
any other expenses required to make the 


1/30 to 1/22 
1/12 
1/10 
1/16 

1/30 to 1/26 
1/5 

1/25 

1/50 to 1/40 
1/30 to 1/15 
1/40 to 1/25 
1/70 to 1/40 
1/50 

1/70 to 1/40 

1/133 to 1/65 
1/170 
1/200 





39. 

road complete for travel. 

(2) The cost of maintenance includes 
&11 the expenses cf keeping in repair 
and renewing structures and surface, 
keeping ditches open and maintaining the 
road in every particular.in the condi¬ 
tion it was in when the construction wasr 
finished• 

(3) The cost of operating is the cost 
of drawing the traffic over the road, 
which is made up of the cost of labor of 
men and draught animals, the interest on 
the investment in vehicles and harnesses 
and the wear and tear on them. 

£4) Revenue is the amount of money 
received by the owner as the result of 
the traffic. 

The requisite of a road as to cost is-, 
that the revenue should always exceed 
the interest on the cost of construction 
plus the cost of maintenance and operat¬ 
ing, by as large an amount as possible. 

In the case cf a railroad the stocks 
holders construct, maintain and operate 
the road and receive revenue from the 
transportation of freight and passengers 

With the highway the case is never 
quite the same as with the railroad. 



40. 

Perhaps the nearest approach is in the 
case of the toll road, where the toll 


company constructs 
road, but does not 


and maintains the 
operate it. The rev¬ 


enue derived by the company is in the 
shape of toll received from those who 
use or operate the road. As far as the 
toll company is concerned the end sought 
is to make the revenue as much larger 
than the interest on the cost of con¬ 
struction. plus the cost of maintenance 
as possible. The cost of operating does 


not have any direct bearing on the case. 
It has, however, an indirect influence, 
as the less the cost of operating, the 
greater will be the traffic, and hence 
the revenue derived therefrom. 

In the case of the common road the 
public constructs, maintains, and oper¬ 
ates the road, and derives the revenue 
indirectly from the increase in the val¬ 
ue of articles moved. In this case the 
proposition,that the revenue should ex¬ 
ceed the sum of the cost of maintenance 
and operating, and the interest on the 
cost of construction, should be observed. 
It is very seldom that it is possible to 
estimate, with any great degree of accu- 



41. 


racy > tae cost of operating ancl the a- 
mount of revenue to be derived in the 
case of a road, nevertheless these 
should always be taken into account in 
considering the advisability of building 
a new roaa, or in deciding between dif- 
ferent routes. In considering the ad¬ 
visability of improving an old road, 
over which a fixed amount of freight is 
carried, the case is simpler. The cost 
of construction should be considered as 
the cost of making the improvement* The 
cost of maintenance may be taken as the 
increase or decrease in cost of main¬ 
taining due to the Improvement. The 
cost of operating will be a negative 
quantity* and will be the difference be¬ 
tween the cost of operating the road 
before and after the improvement. The 
revenue may be considered as the differ¬ 
ence between the revenue before and af¬ 
ter the improvement, or in this case 
nothing. It will then be more econom¬ 
ical to make the contemplated improve¬ 
ment if the interest on the cost of con¬ 
struction, plus (or minus) the increase 
{or decrease) in the cost of mainten¬ 
ance* is less than the saving in cost of 









42 - 


operating * 

To illustrate this, let us take the 
case of an earth road 5 miles long* hav¬ 
ing a traffic that requires the work of 
12 horses and 6 drivers for 300 days in 
the year- Suppose it is proposed to 
macadamize the road at a cost of $5000 
per mile, and we wish to find out wheth¬ 
er it would be economical to do so, 
provided there were no increase in the 
traffic- Let us take the resistance on 
a macadamized road as two-thirds that on 
an earth road. Then the traffic of the 
road under consideration could be car¬ 
ried on by 8 horses and 4 drivers on a 
macadamized road. Then > if the labor 
of a 3$an and pair of horses is worth $3 
a day, the saving in operating would bo 
$1800 per year- Assume that the main¬ 
tenance of the macadamized road costs 
$50 more per mile per year than that of 
the earth road. Then the entire yearly 
cost of the improvement, with interest 
at 5$, will be the interest on cost of 
construction» $1250, plus increased cost 
of maintenance, $250, a total of $1500- 
Hence the net yearly saving will be $300. 





45. 

The case , however, is seldom as sim¬ 
ple as this, as an improvement in a road 
almost invariably leads to an increase 
of traffic, hence an increase Of revenue, 
and this increase should be given due 
weight in the investigation. 



















































44 . 


LOCATION. 

Having obtained an idea of the requi¬ 
sites of a good road, we are now pre¬ 
pared to consider the location. 

The requisites that should be taken 
intoaccount in making the location are, 
that the road should be straight, that 
it should be level, and that the revenue 
minus the sum of the three items of cost 
should be a maximum. 

It is evident that in the ordinary 
case it is impossible to satisfy all 
these conditions. It is generally im¬ 
possible to make a road straight and 
level without making the cost excessive. 

The condition which should be given 
the greatest weight is that which re¬ 
lates to the cost, and indeed, if this 
is properly considered, the others may 
be neglectea. 

Probably the most uncertain element to 
be taken into account, in determining 
upon the best location, is the amount of 
traffic that may be expected. Yet it is 
best to make an estimate of this as 
carefully as possible- 

The work of locating a road should 
consist of three parts. 







45 * 

1. Reconnaissance. 

2. Preliminary. 

3* Location- 

1. The reconnaissance consists of a 
careful and thorough, examination of all 
the ground over which there is any prob~ 
ability that the road ought to pass. 

The first thing for the engineer to do 
is to procure the best map of the region 
that can be obtained* This will usually 
show the course of the streams, and from 
these the position and direction of the 
ridges can be approximately traced upon 
the map. With this map, and no instru¬ 
ments except the aneroid barometer, a 
pocket compass, and a hand level, the 
engineer makes a thorough examination of 
the region through which the roaa is to 
be located. The ground should be 
crossed from both directions, as the 
features of a piece of country often ap¬ 
pear quite different as seen from dif¬ 
ferent standpoints. 

The reconnaissance should take note of 
low places in a ridge which the roaa has 
to pass over, of favorable points to 
cross streams, of quarries or deposits 
of gravel where suitable material may oe 




46 . 


found for the surface of the road, in 
fact, of all the features of the country 
which can in any way influence the loca¬ 
tion of the road- In addition to this 
the engineer should obtain all informa¬ 
tion possible, that will in any way as¬ 
sist him in making an estimate of the 
amount and class of traffic that may be 
expected, 

2- The preliminary. The reconnais¬ 
sance will generally narrow the investi¬ 
gation down to one or more general 
routes, of which it will then be neces¬ 
sary to make the preliminary survey. 

This is made with the transit, for 
producing straight lines and measuring 
angles, the 100 ft. chain or tape, for 
measuring distances, and the level and 
rod, for obtaining elevations. A care¬ 
ful preliminary survey should he made of 
each of the routes which the reconnais¬ 
sance indicates as possible locations. 
The preliminary survey, in each case, 
should occupy as nearly as possible the 
position that the location will have if 
made on the same general route. Stakes 
should be set at intervals of 100 ft. 
along the line, numbered consecutively 




4:7 . 


0. It 2,etc.from the starting point. 

A careful record of distances and an¬ 
gles should be kept in the note bookt so 
that a map can be made. A convenient 
scale to use for such a map is *00 feet 
to the inch. The map should show 
streams, buildingst property lines and. 
where the ground is irregular, contour 
lines for a short distance on each side 
of the line. 

Levels should be taken along the line, 
so that a profile can be made. The pro¬ 
file should, for convenience in compar¬ 
ing with the map. have the same horizon¬ 
tal scale. The vertical scale should be 
much greater than the horizontal, so as 
to show prominently the inequalities of 
the surface. The profile, in addition 
to the elevations of the surface of 
the ground, should show the elevation of 
high and low water at the crossings of 
streams. Upon the profile should be 
drawn the grade line, in such a position 
that the cuts and fills will be as near¬ 
ly equal as possible without making the 
grades too steep. 

If preliminaries have been run in more 
than one place, approximate estimates of 

















48. 


tiio cqsu of construction, maintenance, 
and. operating should bs* made, anc. serve 
as a basis for determining on which line 
the final location should be made. 

Let us take a very simple case as an 
illustration. 

Suppose it is required to connect bv a 

V 

system of roads three towns, a, B and C, 
Fig.4. This can he done in either of 
three ways. 

1st. By building the road from A to 0 
through B. 

A 

2nd. By building the straight road 
from A to C »• with a branch from B to D. 

3rd. By building roads from A to B> 
from B to C * and from A to C. 

From data furnished by preliminary 
surveys of all these lines we are to de~ 
termine which is the proper system to 
build . 

Let us assumei for simplicity, that 
the cost of construction is $5000 per 
mile, and the cost of maintenance $100 
per mile per year, on all the lines. 
Assume also that a traffic of 6000 tons 
may be expected in each direction be* 
tween A and C, and 3000 tons in each di~ 
rection between A and B, and B and C> 



49 , 


and also tuat the grades are such that a 
pair of worses can draw a load of 2 tons 


30 miles a day. 

Call the labor of a man and pair GLf 
horses worth $3 a day, and with interest 
at 5 $> the following table will give the 
cost per year of each system. 


<r: ■** mm mm «** ***» f*** - mm c*-® 'JtT' tm-~ mm m*<- txat mo cm itf. 

Interest on 

Maint 

Construct ion. 

aim wee* «« •*» ma sea mm <ff #u/ vo etc:. «ca^ «& jpati mm mm man. 


Operating. 


Total 


1st 

$1250 

$500 

$4500 

$6250 

2nd 

1375 

550 

4500 

6425 

3rd 

2250 

900 

3900 

o 

ID 

a 


From this comparison it is evident 
that the most economical system to build 
is the 1st.,AB and BC • 

Adifferent arrangement of the towns, 
a greater cost of construction per mile 
on one line than on another> a greater 
cost of hauling loans on one line? due 
to steeper grades, or a different as¬ 
sumption in regard to the traffic, would 
all tend to complicate the problem and 
give a case more nearly like that which 
the engineer usually has to deal with- 
3. Location. The approximate position 
cf the line having been decidea upon 








50 . 

from a comparison of preliminaries, the 
next step is to make the location. 

If the map of the preliminary survey 
has been carefully * made and shows the 

contours of the surface, the location 
can be quite closely decided upon by a 
study of the map and profile. The end 
to be sought is to decrease the cuts and 
fills, and improve the grades as shown, 
by the preliminary, as much as possible. 

The located line should consist of 
straight lines connected by curves, the 
radius of which should not generally be 
less than 50 feet. Sometimes where the 
deflection angle is quite small, no curve 
is used, the angle being allowed to re¬ 
main * 

As in the preliminary survey stakes 
should.be set along the line 100 feet 
apart. 

A map of the location should be rnaae 
showing the position of the line with 
reference to all property through which 
it passes, together with the location of 
buildings thereon. This map should also 
show the point of crossing and angle 
mad.e with streams, other roads or rail¬ 
roads . 

A profile should be made showing the 












ground and grad© lines, the elevation of 
high and low water at crossings of 
streams, the location* length and gener¬ 
al character of all bridges on the line, 
and size and material of culverts. If 
known, the class of material to be en¬ 
counter ea in cuts should be given. The 
profile should also show the approximate 
quantity of material in each cut, fill 
and structure. 



CONSTRUCTION. 

In this section we shall include the 
making of cuts and fills, and the build¬ 
ing of structures. The preparation of 
the covering we shall reserve for a sub¬ 
sequent section. 

Before the actual work of construction 
is begun, the first thing to be attended 
to is the acquisition of the land re¬ 
quired for the road. This should be ob¬ 
tained by purchase if it can be bought 
for a fair price. Sometimes the owner 
of a piece of land will not sell at any 
reasonable price. In such a case the 
land can be obtained under the law of 
Eminent Domain, or by '''condemnation 98 
as it is often called. By this law the 
land can be taken after a certain legal 
process, and such a price paid for it as 
may be fixed by a commission appointed 
for the purpose. 

The work of construction can be done 
by day labor hired by the town or county 
building the road, or by contract. The 
latter method is usually tne more econ¬ 
omical, and fully as satisfactory, if 
the work is in charge of a competent en¬ 
gineer • 












































If tiie work is to be cione by contract, 
a written contract sh.ou.ld be made and 
signed, and a bond given by the con¬ 
tractor for the faithful performance of 
the work. The contract should give the 
prices agreed upon for moving earth and 
rock- for constructing bridges, culverts 
drains, etc. and should specify the time 
when the work is to be completed a ad the 
dates when payments are to be made. It 
is usual to reserve a certain per cent 
(usually 10$) of the value of work clone 
when payments' are made* until the final 
payment after the completion of the work. 
The contract should also include speci¬ 
fications of the manner of doing the 
work . 

The actual work of construction we 
shall consider under two heads* 

1. Grading. 

2. structures. 

1. Grading* 

The entire width of the road should 
first be cleared of brush and trees un¬ 
less it is decided to leave some for 
shade* On the question of the advisa¬ 
bility of having trees along the road¬ 
side* there is a difference of opinion. 




54 . 


It. is evident that they exclude the rays 
of the sun from the road and prevent it 
from urying quickly after rains. This 
might not be a very serious obiection in 
the case of a broken stone road that is 
properly drained, as very little moist¬ 
ure would remain on the surface. In 
the case of the ordinary earth road it 
is desirable to have the mud dry as soon 
as possible, and anything that tends to 
prevent it from so doing is to be avoid¬ 
ed . 

Another obiection to having trees very 
near a road is that the roots,as they 
grow, are very likely to cause a consid¬ 
erable amount of injury to the road cov¬ 
ering, and to extend their extremities 
into the joints of drains. Yet they add 
much to the attractiveness of a road 
and, in the case of pleasure drives, 
they are almost indispensable. The ob¬ 
jections to them will be*to a great ex¬ 
tent done away with, if they are allowed 
to remain only along the outside edges 
of the right of way. If allowed only on 
the north side, they will be a benefit 
in winter, in northern Xaiituaes, by 
keeping snow from drifting across the 



55. 

road* and affording protection to trav¬ 
ellers . 

After the clearing has been done the 
line should be 1 'cross-sectioned 0 0 . 
Cross-sectioning consists in ascertain¬ 
ing the cut and fill at points so se¬ 
lected that the amount of excavation and 
embankment can be calculated* and in 
setting stakes to indicate to those who 
are to do the grading the cut and fill 
to be made* Cross-sections should be 
taken on regular ground at each station* 
or 100 feet apart, on irregular ground 
or sharp curves they should be closer 
together. At each cross-section* in ad¬ 
dition to the center stake, a slope 

* 

stake siiould be set on each side to in¬ 
dicate the edge of the slope. Each of 
these stakes should be marked with the 
vertical distance of the top of the em¬ 
bankment above, or the bottom of the ex¬ 
cavation below the ground at the stake. 
For his own convenience, it is well for 
the contractor to fix a pole in the 
ground at the center stake, where a fill 
is to be made, with the top at the ele¬ 
vation above the ground, indicated by 
the stake. 



56 . 


The slope to be given to the sides of 
the embankment and excavation deserves 
some attention. 

Some kinds of earth will stand at a 
steeper slope than others. It is usual, 
however, to give a slope of 1 1/2 hori¬ 
zontal to 1 vertical to all earth em¬ 
bankments. Some kinds of earth xvill not 
stand permanently at this slope but re¬ 
quire as flat a slope as 2 to 1. Em¬ 
bankments .made entirely of rock are 
sometimes given a slope of 1 to 1. 

In excavations the slope is usually 
made 1 1/2 to 1 in earth, and as steep 
as 1/4 to 1 or 1/5 to 1 in rock. Some 
earth V7ill stand a slope of 1 to 1. It 
is recommended by some that the slope on 
the south side of the cuts be made as 
flat as 2 to 1 to allow the sun to shine 
upon the road as much as possible. 

Before the grading is begun the roots 
should be grubbed up between the slope 
stakes and wherever ditches are to be 
dug. It is best to remove roots under 
all embankments, although it is some¬ 
times thought to be unnecessary under 
those over 3 or 4 feet high. But in any 
case the stumps should be cut close to 





57 . 


the ground. 

The method of doing the grading will 
depend largely upon the character of the 
profile and the provisions of the con¬ 
tract - Where the ground is quite regu¬ 
lar the grade line will usually be a 
foot or two above the ground and the 
grading will consist in making ditches 
along the sides of the road, and using 
the eareh excavated to form the roadbed. 
When there are cuts and fills, the fills 
should be made with material taken from 
the cuts, provided it does not have to 
be hauled too great a distance. The 
distance to which it is economical to 
haul material from a cut to make a fill, 
rather than to wa.ste from the cut and 
borrow for the fill, will depend upon 
the class of material to be hauled, and 
the power used to haul it. 

When the excavation exceeds the em¬ 
bankment it is necessary to waste the 
excess, either by widening the fill at 
the mouth of the cut, or by forming a 
waste bank- When it is necessary to 
make such a bank, a little time spent in 
making an approximate estimate of the 
amount of earth to be wasted, and in 








setting stakes to mark the line of slope 
of the bank, will be more than repaid by 
the better appearance of the bank. All 
material wasted on the surface of the 
ground near a cut, should be far enough 
back from the top of the slope to pre¬ 
vent it from washing back into the cut. 

The tools used for doing the grading 
will depend largely upon the distance 
the material has to be hauled. V?hen the 
haul is very short, as when the material 
is taken from the sides of the road, the 
shovel and wheelbarrow are sometimes 
used > 

The drag scraper,(Figs.5 and B) which 
holds from 1/10 to 1/4: of a cubic yard 
of earth, and is drawn by a pair of 
horses, is more commonly used for short 
distances, either in borrowing from the 
sides, or in hauling from cut to fill. 

Tne drag scraper is filled by raising 
the handles and allowing the edge to run 
under the earth. When filled, the edge 
is raised by pressing downward upon the 
handles. When the scraper reaches the 
point at which the earth is to be dumped 
the handles are raised until the edge 
catches in the ground and the scraper is 






overturned. In this condition it is 
drawn back to the place of loading. 

On work where there is a nearly uni¬ 
form fill for some distance, as is often 
the case on the western prairies, the 
' 'New Era Grader'" has been used to ad¬ 
vantage. This machine, which requires 
twelve horses, is drawn along where the 
ditch is to be made, plows a continuous 
furrow, and delivers the earth upon the 
embankment by means of a wide belt, 
which moves at right angles to the line 
of draught. A harrow should follow upon 
the embankment to break up the lumps and 
level the earth left by the grader. 

When the haul exceeds 75 or 100 feet, 
the wheel scraper should take the place 
of the drag scraper. (Figs. 7, 8 and 9.) 
This holds from i/5 to 1/2 of a cubic 
yard and is drawn by a pair of horses. 

In filling the wheel scraper an extra 
pair of horses, called a 5 'snatch team' 8 
is hitched ahead of the regular team- 
The ivheel scraper is filled by first 
raising a lever which lowers the scraper 
into position to fill. The scraper is 
then filled by raising the handles in 
the same manner as with the drag scraper 































I 









I 


60 . 

When filled, the scraper is raised from 
the ground to the carrying position by 
pressing down the lever. To dump the 
loan-the lever is raised until the edge 
of the scraper catches in the ground, 
when the scraper revolves. The driver 
usually loads the'drag scraper, while 

the wheel scraper requires an extra man, 

* 

called a 1 ‘scraper holder 1 *, for this 
purpose. One scraper holder can attend 
to the loading of several scrapers. A 
plo\? drawn by two or more horses is used 
to loosen the earth for both the arag 
and wheel scrapers.(Fig.10.) 

When the length of haul exceeds about 
1000 feet* it is generally economical to 
use wagons or carts* instead of scrap¬ 
ers. Both of these are loaded by a 
force of shovelers. The wagon has four 
wheels and its bottom is made of poles 
or light timbers* resting longitudinal¬ 
ly upon the sills without any fastening. 
To unload* the poles are raised one at a 
time by two men* one at each end of the 
wagon* thus allowing the earth to run 
through. Its capacity is about 1 cubic 
yard . 

The cart usually has two wheels and is 



61 . 


, , , its body 

ara-wa by one or two horses, and A is bal¬ 
anced on a pivot so that it can be easi¬ 
ly emptied by tipping back. Its capaci¬ 
ty is from 1/2 to 1 cubic yard. 

The cost of handling earth is about 
tne same with either cart or wagon. In 
some localities the wagon, and in others 
the cart> is useu for the same class of 
work . 

With a haul of 1000 feet or over, 
where the amount of earth to be moved is 
quite large, a track is often laid ana a 
train of cars, drawn by a horse) is used 
to advantage. These cars hold about 1 
cubic yard each. 

Sometimes the amount of work may be so 
great as to warrant the use of a steam 
shovel to do the excavating and a small 
engine to haul the cars. 

The solidity of the embankment will 
depend largely upon the methoa of making 
it. 

Wheel barrow work makes the poorest 
embankment, as it is very soft and set¬ 
tles very much after completion. 

The drag scraper, when the earth is 
hauled from the sides, makes the firmest 
embankment, as the horses compact it by 
travelling over every part of it, as the 



62 . 


work goes on 

An embankment made with the wheel 
scraper, wagon, or cart, where the fill 
is made by hauling from the cut, is in¬ 
ferior in solidity to that made with the 
drag scraper, as the horses usually 
travel near the center of the embankment 
instead of over the whole surface. 

The 8 “New Era Gracier 8 ' makes a very 
good embankment if the earth, is properly 
levelled by a horse harrow. 

Embankments made with cars are not as 
solid as those made with scrapers, carts 
or wagons. 

A bank built up in layers is prefera¬ 
ble to one made by building on at the 
and. Embankments made with the drag 
scraper can be best made in layers, 
while those made with the wheel scraper, 
wagon and cart, by hauling from the cut 
are usually kept about up to grade and 
extended at the end. The wheel scraper 
and wagon are usually driven over the 
end and unloaded on the slope, while the 
cart is backed to the edge and the con- 

tents dumpea over.* 

A bank built up in layers should be 
constructed as in Fig*11» and not as in 
Fig.12, the sides always being kept 



Higher than the edges. This will tend 
to prevent any sliding from taking place. 

A bank shoula always be kept at the 
proper width as it is built up, as it is 
difficult to make new material stay in 
place on such a slope as is shown in 
Fig.13, which is the shape an embankment 
will often take if proper care is not 
used • 

When embankments are built along a 
side-hill, it is sometimes necessary, if 
the hill is very steep, to cut the orig¬ 
inal surface into steps as shown in Fig. 
14, to prevent the embankment from slid¬ 
ing. 

Where an embankment is required over a 
swamp, it is sometimes difficult to get 
a good foundation. If the soft material 
is not very deep, and is underlaid by a 
hard sub-stratum> it is in some cases 
advisable to remove the soft material 
and start thd embankment on the hard 
layer; iri other cases it is better to 
dump the earth for the embankment di¬ 
rectly upon the surface, and let it sink 
through the soft material and come to a 
bearing upon the sub-stratum, continuing 
the filling until a solid bank is raised 



























64- 


above the surface. Sometimes it is nec¬ 
essary to build, an embankment across a 
swamp where the soft material is so deep 
that some other method of construction 
has to be resorted to. In such cases a 
method which has been used with great 
success, is to build a mattress upon the 
surface,of two layers of brushwood bound 
in bundles, the bundles in the lower 
layer extending in a longitudinal di¬ 
rection and those in the upper in a 
transverse direction. Upon this the em¬ 
bankment is constructed. In all cases 
where the embankment is built over 
swampy places, deep and wide ditches 
should be dug on either side. 

When cuts and fills are nearly com¬ 
pleted the engineer should set at each 
station three grade stakes. These are 
driven one at the center and one at each 
edge of the roadbed, with their top at 
the exact elevation of the required sur¬ 
face of the roadbed. In setting these 
stakes the fact should be borne in mind 
that although earth when freshly dug 
will occupy a larger space than before 
excavation, it wj.11 after a time shrink 
so as to occupy a less space than in its 














































I 


i. 























> 




























. 








































65 . 

orignal state and the stakes should be 
set to allow for any settlement. Ro-ck 
will of course occupy a larger space in 
embankment than before being excavated 
and broken up. 

It is necessary to take account of 
this when balancing the cuts and fill on 
a profile, or estimating the amount of 
waste or borrow in a piece of grading. 

Below is given a table showing the a- 
mount of embankment that can be made 
from 1 yard of different materials in 
excavation. 

Rock 1.75 cu.yds. 

Gravel or sand .92 cu.yd. 

Clay .90 cu.yd. 

Loam .88 cu.yd. 

Vegetable surface soil .85 cu.yd. 

Puddled clay .75 cu.yd. 

For finishing the slopes of cuts a 
tool,called a mattock» is used,being 
similar to a pickaxe with a wide blade. 

For obtaining the proper slope a right 
angled triangle is often made of boards, 
as shown in Fig.15» the hypothenuse be¬ 
ing at the proper slope when the legs 
are vertical and horizontal. This can 
be brought to the proper position by a 













66 . 


level bubble inserted in the horizontal 
leg, or a plumb line suspended on the 
vertical leg. 

On the up hill side of a cut there 
should always be a ditch to receive and 
carry away the surface water which would 
otherwise run down over the slope of the 
cut. This ditch should be so far back 
from the edge of the slope as not to 
cause the earth between it and the slope 
to cave in. In the bottom of a cut on 
either side of the roadbed there should 
be a ditch to receive and carry to the 
mouth of the cut, the water which falls 
on the slopes and on the surface of the 
road * 

To prevent washing, .the side slopes of 
embankments and excavations can be sown 
with grass seed, a thin coating of loam 
having been first spread ever the sur- 
f ac e« 

The excavation of rock deserves a 
little attention. When an occasional 
boulder is encountered one or two holes 
drilled by hand and charged with dyna¬ 
mite will usually be sufficient to break 
it in pieces that can be easily handled. 

When a ledge of rock of sodiv magr-i. kude 




67 . 


is encountered, it is best, if the ledge 
is hard,to use drills, operated by steam 
or compressed air. Several holes should 
be fired at once by a battery, as in 

this way a great Saving will be effected 
over the old method of firing each hole 
independently a fuse. A book that 
gives quite an amount of useful infor¬ 
mation on the subject of blasting is the 
''Quarryman and Contractors Guide 1 ' 
written by Arthur Kirk of Pittsburg. Pa. 

Sometimes a ledge of soft shale may be 
encountered which is not hard enough to 
require blasting, but can be broken up 
with pickaxe and crowbar. 

In some of the mountain roads of 
Europe it has been necessary to build 
tunnels. 

The depth at which it is economical to 
make a tunnel in place of an open cut. 
will vary to a considerable extent with 
the class of material encountered and 
the width of roadbed, and a careful 
study ought to be made of each special 
case. It may in some cases be as small 
as 50 feet and in others as great as 60 
feet • 

2. Structures, The structures which 



68 . 

we shall consider are, 

(1) Retaining Walls. 

(2 ) Culverts. 

(5) Bridges. 

(4) Drains. 

(1) A retaining wall is a wall built 
to resist the pressure of earth filled 
in behind it. 

Retaining walls are sometimes used on 
side hill work, or where land is so 
valuable that it is more economical to 
build them, than to buy a wide strip on 
each side for the side slopes. 

The pressure that a retaining wall has 
to resist is that of the earth which 
lies above a plane, coinciding with the 
surface of the slope which the earth 
would assume if the wall were removed. 

In Fig. 16, if A B represent the slope 
which the earth would take if unsupport¬ 
ed then the triangular prism of which 
ABC is a section is held in place by 
the wall B C D E. When the earth rises 

above the top of the wall, as in Fig.17, 

s ur 

the wall is said to be A charged and the 
section A B C F is held in position by 
the wall• 

A retaining wall may fail by sliding 





69 . 


or tipping at the base, or at any hori¬ 
zontal joint. 

The forces acting upon a wall of this 
kind are the earth pressure and the 
weight of the wall itself. it is evi¬ 
dent that if the resultant of these 
forces falls outside the face of the 
wall at any joint, the wall will be 
overturned. The weight of any given 
wall can be easily calculated, but the 
theory of the earth pressure is quite 
complicated . 

One of the chief causes of the failure 
of retaining walls is the presence of 
water in the earth behind them. This 
may increase the pressure upon the wall 
in either of two ways. 1st. by freezing 
and expanding, and 2nd. by mixing with 
the earth and reducing it to a semi- 
liquid state. To prevent water from re¬ 
maining behind the wall, openings should 
be left in the masonry near the base to 
allow it to escape. It is well to fill 
in directly behind the wall with broken 
stone, to allow the water to find its 
way quickly to the base. 

(2) Culverts. When the water that 
drains from a small area has to be car- 



70 . 

ried under a road> a culvert of some 
kind must be provided. 

A common formula for deciding upon the 
size of opening for a culvert is 
A ~ cVm ; in which 
A - Area of opening in sq.ft. 

M - Drainage area in acres. 

C - 1*0 for level country. 

r 1,6 for compact hilly country. 

-4.0 for rocky mountainous country. 

If the size of drainage area cannot be 
estimated closely enough without, a very 
close approximation can be obtained by 
making a rough traverse, using a pocket 
compass to determine courses, and pacing 
the distances. The traverse can then be 
platted on cross-section paper and the 
number of squares counted to obtain the 

area. 

it is best, however, not to stick too 
closely to the formula but to modify it 
in any special case by all the informa¬ 
tion that can be obtained such as the 
size of opening where the same stream is 
crossed by other roads, the elevation of 
high water, and the experience of the 
inhabitants of the region* 

Culverts may be made of (a) Y/ood> (b) 


















71. 

Stone> {c} Concrete or Beton, (d) Brick, 
(e ) Pipe. 

(a) Wooden culverts are very exten¬ 
sively used. They are not very expen¬ 
sive and are not very durable. They are 
sometimes made of 2 or 3 inch plank and 
with an opening of 1 sq. ft.or less, but 
it is questionable whether an opening 
much less than 2 feet square should be 
used > as a culvert of smaller opening is 
likely to become filled with refuse, and 
is difficult to clean out• They may be 
built as large as 4 feet high by 6 feet 
wide. 

The manner of construction is clearly 
shown in the drawings. Figs,18 and 19. 
Sills of 8x12 inch timber, laid flat, 
should be bedded below the level of the 
bottom of the side ditches, at a dis¬ 
tance of 5 or 6 feet from each other. 

The walls, which should have a thickness 
of 6 or 8 inches j should be drift bolted 
to the sills,which are notched down to 
receive them. When the walls exceed 3 
feet in height, struts should be put in 
between them at mid-height, at intervals 
of 8 or 10 feet to prevent the sides 
from being forced in by the earth. 



* 



' 


' 













72 . 


The cover should be spiked or drift 
bolted to the top of the walls, and 
should have a thickness of from 3 to 8 
inches, depending on the width of the 
culvert. 

Where the water runs with considerable 
velocity, it may be necessary to protect 
the bottom of the culvert, in which case 
a floor of 2 inch plank, spiked to the 
sills, will answer the purpose. In any 
case the earth should be carefully 
tamped around the sills and under and 
behind the walls. 

The chief objection to wooden culverts 
is their short life and,although they 
may be cheaper than those of more dura¬ 
ble material, it is doubtful whether it 
is policy to build them except on unim¬ 
portant roads. When the time comes for 
renewing, then the road has to be torn 
upland the road surface injured and 
traffic impeded. It is of course diffi¬ 
cult to estimate the inconvenience oc¬ 
casioned in this way in dollars and 
cents, but such things*always have- 
weight in deciding on the relative econ¬ 
omy of different classes ot structures. 
When the amount of money available for 





































73 . 

construction is limited,it may be neces¬ 
sary to build less substantial struct¬ 
ures than true economy would dictate. 

(b) Stone culverts. in a country 
where stone is very plenty,stone cul¬ 
verts are built very cheaply, being 
usually constructed of an inferior qual- 
ity of masonry. 

There are two forms of stone culverts, 
box and arch. 

Box culverts may range in size from 2 
feet square up to a span of 4 feet and a 
height of 6 feet. When the width is 
only 2 feet the walls may be carried up 
straight to the top as in Fig.20, but 
when it exceeds this, it is best to draw 
the walls in toward the top until they 
are only 2 feet apart,as in Fig.21. The 
covers should have ample thickness, 1 
foot being usual for a span of two feet. 
The walls should have a thickness of 
from 2 to 3 feet and be set on a founda¬ 
tion course about 1 foot thick. With 
the larger sizes, wing walls are used to 
hold back the slope,, but they are often 
omitted on the small ones. 

When the width exceeds 4 feet it is 
best to use -an arch culvert(Fig.22) and 






74 . 


sometimes for a less width this form is 
used. The construction of the founda¬ 
tion and walls of the arch culvert is 
similar to that of the box. The top 
consists of an arch,usually semi-circu¬ 
lar in form,about 12 inches thick. The 
wing walls sometimes have a batter of 1 
to 2 inches to the foot. 

Stone culverts are usually built of 
rubble masonry, sometimes of squared ma¬ 
sonry . 

Box culverts may be laid with or with¬ 
out cement. 

The sides and walls of an arch culvert 
are generally laid in cement, and the 
arch should always be. 

The. bottom of stone culverts should 
have a pavement from 8 to 12 inches 
thick, of cobble stone or stone chips set 
on edge,and at each end a large stone 
should be set in the ground to the depth 
of 2 feet to prevent washing. 

It is usual to rip-rap the space be¬ 
tween the wing walls at either end for 
the same purpose. 

(c) Concrete or Beton culverts. 

Within a few years concrete or beton 
formed of a mixture of cement, sand, and 



75. 

stone, hate come to be used for many 
purposes in the place of stone, it 
could be used for building all sizes of 
culverts where t^e stone that can be ob¬ 
tained is of an inferior quality not 
suitable for constructing walls and 
arches, but making a good concrete. 

A mixture of sand and cement is some¬ 
times used for repairing old masonry, 
the crevices being filled, and the sur¬ 
face covered with a layer about 4 inches 
thick. A very interesting description 
of its use in repairing culverts on the 
N-Y, L.E.& W, R.R. is given in the Tran¬ 
sactions of the American Society of Civ¬ 
il Engineers, Vol .10, p.291. 

In building of concrete or beton, 
wooden forms are used to mould the ma¬ 
terial to the proper shape. 

(d) Brick is sometimes used for build- 
iiig culverts where stone is not plenty 
and a material more durable than wood is 
required. Brick culverts are made of 
practically the same form as stone arch 
culverts. Sometimes the walls of an 
arch culvert are built of stone and the 
arch of brick,as a better arch can be 
constructed of brick than of stone un- 





. 



less carefully cut. 

(e) Pipe. For culverts of small 
capacity pipes are often used. Under 
high embankments cast iron pipes are 
preferable. Cement and vitrified sewer 
pipes are sometimes used. A second 
quality of vitrified sewer pipe which 
will make a very fair culvert can often 
be bought very cheaply. Cement pipes • 
are often very brittle and it is doubt¬ 
ful if their use is to be recommended. 

When an iron pipe is used it is quite 
common to build a wall of stone around 
each end of it. and to rip-rap or pave 
the entrance and outlet(Fig.23). In 
some cases wing walls have been con¬ 
structed as for stone culverts. Two 
pipes may be used side by side when one 
would not have sufficient capacity. 

(3) Bridges. 

When the road crosses a stream or 
swamp where a culvert would not have 
sufficient opening,, or when it passes 
over a railroad, a bridge of some kind 
is necessary. Bridges may be construct¬ 
ed o f 

(a) Wood 

(b) Iron 

( c) Iron and Wood combined 


























77 . 


(cl) Stone. Brick or Beton 

(a) Wooden bridges may be either sim¬ 
ple beams or trusses. 

Beam bridges consist of two or more 
beams which carry the floor and are sup¬ 
ported at their ends on piles, trestles, 
or abutments of masonry. 

The span may be from 15 to 20 feet. 
Fig.24 shows a common way of construct¬ 
ing a pile bridge of a single span when 
the fill is not over 4 cr 5 feet high. 
The piles are driven,three or more for 
each support, are cut off at the proper 
elevation and capped with timbers 12x12 
inches. The stringers rest upon the 
caps and are drift bolted to them. The 
earth back of the piles is held in place 
by planks spiked to the piles. 

When the height of the embankment ex¬ 
ceeds 4 or 5 feet this form of con¬ 
struction is not advisable on account of 
tne increased pressure of the earth on 
the planks and piles. In such cases the 
form of construction shown in Fig 25 is 
used- A slope is given to the end of 
the embankment and the piles are driven 
into the slope. The first stringers 
rest on a 12 x 12 inch timber, and this 


t 
















. v m 

, 








73 . 

rests on pieces of plank 3 or 4 feet 
long fiimly bedded In the embankment . 
Sway bracing of-plank bolted to the 
pi?es should be used as shown in Fig.25. 

In rocky ground where it is impossible 
to drive piles > trestles are used in— 
stead. Fig.26 shows the cross-section 
of a trestle as commonly constructed. 

Xt consists of four posts# two of which 
aro vertical, and two battered* These 
posts rest upon a sill usually 12 inches 
square, and this rests upon mud sills, 
one under each post. 

Trestles are also commonly used in 
place of pile bridges when the height 
exceeds about 25 feet. In this case the 
construction is the same as in Fig,26, 
except that piles are driven where pos¬ 
sible to take the place of the mud sills 
When the 1> ngth. of the posts exceeds 
about 30 feet it is customary to make a 
1 *dorble decked’ 1 trestle by patting in 
an extra horizontal timber at mid-height, 
which forms a cap for the lower posts, 
and a sill for the upper posts. 

In trestles >longitudnal bracing is 
required, between bents. This is usually 
of plank,spiked to the posts. 


79. 




A bridge is often built of beams sup¬ 
ported on abutments of masonry(Fig.27). 
When the span is too great for a simple 
beam»a trussed, beam , Figs.28 and 29 >may 
be used . A better form of construction» 
where there is plenty of space below,is 
shown in Figs.30 and 31. A still more 
common form of construction is shown in 
Figs.32 and 35,called the king and queen 

trusses. For spans of 50 to 60 feet the 

< 

truss shown in Fig.34 is often used. 

For longer spans,the Howe, or sometimes 
the Pratt truss, is commonly used. 

(b) Iron* The simplest form of an iron 
bridge consists of two or more rolled I~ 
beams,which carry the flooring and are 
supported on abutments of masonry. 

Fig. 35 shows the cross-section of an 
I-beam, which is a solid beam of iron, 
consisting of a web. A, and two flanges, 
B and C. Spans of 25 or 30 feet may be 
bridged in this way, but for greater 
spans, up to 70 or 80 feet, plate gird¬ 
ers, built up of plates and angles are 
generally used. The section of such a 
girder is similar to that of an I- 
beam, consisting of a web ana two 




























* 

■ 




. 


















30 . 

flanges. The web is a thin rolled plate 
of iron to which are riveted the flanges 
each consisting of two angle bars, or 

twoangle bars and one or more plates, as 
Shown in Fig.36= 

When a longer span is required, it is 
necessary to use one of the various 
forms of trusses. 

A truss consists of a web composed of 
vertical and diagonal, or all diagonal 
members,- some of which are in tension 
and some in compression, an upper chord 
which is in compression, and usually a 
lower chord which is in tension. 

Tn Figs.37 to 42, pieces subject to 
compression are indicated by a heavy- 
line, those subject to tension by a 
light line, those subject to both ten¬ 
sion and compression by a double line, 
and counters, which are not in action 
when the bridge is symmetrically loaded, 
by a dotted line. 

The following are some of the simple 
forms of trusses, 

Howe truss. (Fig.37 ) In the Howe truss 
the tension members of the web are ver¬ 
tical, ana the compression members in¬ 
clined - 











. 






















' 

.. ■ 



















































Pratt truss (Fig.58). In th® Pratt truss 
the tension members are inclined and the 
compression members are vertical. 

Warren truss (Fig.59). In the Warren 
truss both the tension and compression 
members are inclined at the same angle. 
Post truss (Fig.40) In the Post truss 
the tension members are inclined at an 
angle of 45 degrees, and the compression 
members at an angle of 18 degrees 26 
min* with the vertical. 

Fink truss (41) > and Bollman truss (Fig. 
42)* In both these trusses the lower 
<£ord is omitted. The tension members 
ard inclined and the compression members 

vertical. 

The last three are seldom if ever 
built at the present time, although 
there are still some of them in exis- 

taac e * 

Various other forms are used but they 
are ix early all modifications of one of 
these simple trusses. 

(c) Combination of Wood and Iron. 
Bridges have been built with the upper 
chord, and sometimes the compression 
members of the web, of Wood ; a no. other 
parts of iron« Such bridges are» how 













present 


82. 

ever, very little used at the 
time. 

(d) Stone bridges consist of an arch, 
side walls or abutments, and usually 
wing walls. Stone arches are not uncom¬ 
mon on the roads of some of the European 
countries, but have not been used very 
mudn in this country. Brick is some¬ 
times used instead of stone for such 
bridges,and in France beton has been 
used to some extent. 

{4 ) Drains. 

Covered drains may be required to 
carry to the side ditches water which 
collects under the road covering! (Figs. 
43,44, and 45 },to carry the wat er from 
the gutter under the foot path to the 
s ide ditches,f Fig.46}, to carry water 
from the upper to the lower side of sine 
hill roads,(Fig.47), or to take tne 
place of open ditches in cuts. 

When the soil consists of clay or 
otner impervious material,so that any 
water which may soak tnrough the road 
covering can not readily find its way to 
ene side ditches, or where the ground is 
naturally swampy and wet, a thorough 
system of under drains is necessary. 





85. 

These drains are usually constructed. 

running from the center of the road to 

the ditches, in plan like the letter V 
Wit, a o,tu so M5le „ s sh<w “" 

Fig.45, the angle pointing toward the 
ascent when the road is on a grade. 

They are often called 1 'mitre*'drains. 
The distance apart of these drains will 
depend upon the character of the soil, 
varying from about 20 feet to a distance 
equal to that between side ditches. 
Another method is to lay the drains par¬ 
allel with the line of the road, using 
one or more, according to the nature of 
the soil, and connecting them by cross 
drains with the side ditches at inter¬ 
vals of 200 or 500 feet. 

The depth to which these drains should 
be laid depends upon the severity of the 
climate, as it is advisable to keep them 
below the frost. In England they are 
usually laid at a depth of about 2 feet 
below the surface while in the northern 
part of this country 3 1/2 to 4 feet is 
nec essary. 

They may be constructed of various 
kinds of material such as stone, brick 
or tile. Fig.48 sho’ws the cross-section 












I 

. 

— 
















of a drain made of flat stones arranged 
so as to give a square opening for the 


water. Fig.49 shows a drain of broken 
stones thrown into a trench loosely, of¬ 
ten called a ''blind'' drain. Figs. 50 . 
51 and 52 are drains formed of bricks 
arranged in different ways. B’igs. 53 
and 54 are tile drains. Tiles of 2 to 4 
inches in diameter are often used for 
this purpose. The drain should be cov¬ 
ered with a layer of sod with the grass 
side down* brush wood, hay, or other 


suitable material, to prevent dirt get¬ 
ting into it. A strip of burlap is 
sometimes used with satisfactory results 
as it is so thin that no settlement of 
the material above takes place when it 
decays. The trench above the drain 
should be filled with broken stone or 
gravel to allow the water to percolate 
freely. 

To carry the water from the gutter in¬ 
to the side ditch, when there is a foot- 

t 

path, drains should be used at intervals 

of 75 or 100 feet. For these, drain 

{ 

tile is most commonly used. These are 
unnecessary when the road is under- 
draine&*the water from the gutters being 































. 

























1 




' 





carried to the under drains by vertical 
shafts as shown in Fig.45. These shafts 
should be covered with gratings to pre¬ 
vent leaves and sticks from getting into 

the drains. 

For carrying water from the upper to 
the lower side of side-hill roads, tile 
or stone drains should be constructed at 
intervals of 200 or 300 feet so that the 
ditch will not be worn by water running 
in it for a long distance* 

In cuts it is sometimes advisable to 
dispense with open ditches. In such 
cases covered drains are often built of 
stone as shown in Fig. 54 a. 




86 . 


ROAD COVERING. 

Having considered the forming of cuts 
and fills and the building of mechanical 
Istnuctures, we are now prepared to turn 
our attention to the road covering. 

Roads may be divided with reference to 
the material of which the surface is 
formed as follows,- 

1. Earth. 

2. Broken Stone. 

3. Gravel. 

4i . Corduroy. 

5. Plank. 

6. Charcoal. 

7. Shell. 

1. Earth Roads . 

In most parts of this country the road 
surface is nothing more than the natural 
soil. In some places the character of 
the soil is such that it makes roads 
that are excellent during the greater 
part of the year. 

There is no doubt but great improve¬ 
ment could be ma4e in the ordinary earth 
road by proper construction and mainten¬ 
ance. The first and most important 
thing to be sought is good drainage. 

Deep ditches on either side., with a sys¬ 
tem of subdrains where necessary, will 



















87 . 

do much, toward improving the ordinary 
earth, road. 

A mixture of two kinds of earth may 
often be made which will result in a 
material much superior for road purposes 
to either alone. A dry sandy road May 
thus be improved by the addition of clay, 
or a clayey road by the addition of sand 
as clay and sand will form a, mixture 
that will consolidate with a hard,smooth 
surface, not easily worked into mud. 

The use of a roller is another means 
of improving the surface of an earth 
road, as it consolidates the material so 
as to make it smoother and harder, and 
less impervious to water. A road level¬ 
ler may be used to advantage in the 
spring, after the road becomes dry. but 
is so rough as to make travel unpleasant 

and difficult. 

2. Broken Stone Roads. 

The subject of Broken Stone Roads we 
shall take up under the following heads, 

{1) Macadam Roads. 

(2) Telford Roads. 

(35 Quality of Stone. 

(4) Stone Breaking and Stone Breakers 

(5) Road Rolling and Road Rollers. 






. 

- 


























and 


88 . 

(6) Modifications of Macadam 
Telford Roads. 

(7) Maintenance and Repair of Broken 
Stone Roads. 

(1) Macadam Roads. 

The first scientific road building in 
England was done by Macadam in the ear^ 
part of the present century. His work 
consisted>not in building new roads,but 
in repairing old ones. 

He found the road surface composed of 
a mixture of earth and large stones. He 
dug up the surface, separated the stones 
from the earth, broke them into small 
angular fragments, and relaid them on 
the road. The traffic was then allowed 
to pass over the road and the ruts 
formed by the wheels were filled,as soon 
as they appeared,by men with rakes.until 
the road became consolidated. 

The stones were broken with hammers by 
persons sitting. A large stone was used 
as an anvil on which to lay the stones 
to be broken,and the hammer used weighed 
about 1 pound, and was provided with a 

l 

short handle. 

Macadam at one time directed that the 
stone should be broken into fragments 























. 







09. 

not exceeding 1 inch in any dimension. 
He afterward used 6 02. as the maximum 
weight of the stones, which corresponds 
to a 1 1/^ inch cube, the longest dimen¬ 
sion of Which is 2 1/2 inches. i„ his 
later practice, he used 5 02. as stand¬ 
ard weight, corresponding to a 1 1/4 
inch cube, whose longest dimension is 2 
inches. He claimed that a large stone 
in any part of the road was injurious. 

The thickness of the layer of broken 
stone, or road metal, as he laid it, 
varied from 4 to 10 inches according to 
the traffic. He thought that io inches 
o? well consolidated material was enough 
to carry any traffic. Fig .55 shows the 
cross-section recommended by him for the 
repair of a road in 1819. He insisted 
that the stones should be clean. He 
said every road is to be made of forok- 
en stone without mixture of earth, clay, 
chalk, or any other matter that will im¬ 
bibe water and be affected with frost, 
nothing is to be laid on the clean stone 
on pretence of binding; broken stone 
will combine by its own angles into a 
smooth^surface that cannot be affected 
by vicissitudes of weather or displaced 






















wi 












90. 

by action of.wheels which will pass over 

it Without a jolt and. consequently with¬ 
out injury.’ 8 

his theory was that the natural soil, 
if kept in a dry state, coula carry ariy 
load, that might come upon the wheels of 
a vehicle; and that the road covering 
was simply a -rater tight roof to keep 

the natural soil free from moisture. 

Macadam claimed that a road built over 
soft ground cost less for maintenance 
than one built upon a 1 edge, and men- 
tioned the case of a road on which the 
cost of maintenance of a section over a 
morass was to that of a section upon 
lime-stone rock as 6 to 7. 

* 

(2) Telford Roads, 

Telford, who was a contemporary of 
Macadam> differed from him in the manner 
of constructing his broken stone roads. 
He first set by hand a layer of rough 
paving. On this he spread a layer of. 
fine broken stone, similar to that used 
by Macadam* and the surface he covered 
with a thin layer of gravel,as a binding 
material,to hold the stones in place and 
to hasten their consolidation. 

The following are the specifications 
















£1 . 

I^n accordance with, which he constructed 
a part of the Holyhead road:- 
j , *Uppn the level bed prepared for the 
road materials, a bottom course or layer 
of stones is to be set by hfend in form 
of a close firm pavement: the stones set 
middle of -the road are to be sev** 
en inches in depth; at nine feet from 
the eern-er» five inches; at twelve fset 
from the center, four inches; and at 
fifteen feet, three inches. They are to 
be set on their broadest edges length¬ 
wise across the road, and the breadth of 
the upper edge is not to exceed four in¬ 
ches in any case: All the irregulari¬ 
ties of the upper part of the said pave¬ 
ment are to "p@ broken off by the hammer, 
and all the interstices to be filled 
with stone chips firmly wedged or packed 
by hand with a light hammer; so that 
when the whole pavement is finished, 
there shall be a convexity of four in¬ 
ches in the breadth of fifteen feet from 
the eenter. 

The middle eighteen feet of pavement 
is to be coated with hard stones to the 
depth of six inches. Four of these six 
inches to be first put on and worked in 







































* 
























92 . 

by carriages and. horses; c?js being tak— 

en to ra ^e in the ruts until the surface 
becomes firm and consolidated, after 

which the remaining two inches are to be 

put on. 

Thw whole of this stone is to be brok¬ 
en into pieces as nearly cubical as pos¬ 
sible, so that the largest piece, in its 
longest dimensions, may pass through a 
ring of two inches and a half inside 
diameter. The paved spaces on each side 
of the eighteen middle feet are to be 
coated with broken stones, or well- 
cleansed strong gravel, up to the foot 

CL 

path or other boundary of the road, so as 
to make the whole convexity of the road 
six inches from the center to the sides 
of it; and the whole of the materials 
are to be covered with a binding of an 
inch and a half in depth of good gravel, 
free from clay or earth - 

There were two important points in 
which Telford 5 s system differed from 
that of Macadam. 1st. in the use of the 
foundation pavement of large stones, and 
2 nd. in the use of a binding material. 

Although Telford is usually given the 
credit of having first proposed this 














95. 

form of construction, practically the 
same thing was used by Tresaguet, a 
French engineer as early as 1775 

B y him the eartn was prepared, for the 
foundation parallel to the surface of 
the finished pavement, instead of level 
as was done by Telford. With this ex¬ 
ception their methods of construction 
were almost identical. 

(5) Quality of Stone. 

Various kinds of stone.are used for 
making broken stone roads. The quali¬ 
ties desirable are hardness, thughness, 
readiness of fragments to bind together, 
and resistance to the action of the 
weather. 

The best stone for a broken stone road 
is a trap or basalt. 

Granite is not as good, especially 

when coarse-grained,as it is brittle and 
decomposes easily. 

Syenite makes a good road when fine¬ 
grained . 

The soft limestones are not suitable, 
but some of the harder varieties make a 
fairly good road. Limestones have the 
quality of binding readily. 

The sandstones are, in general, too 



































94 . 

soft. 

Flint and quartz rocks are too brittle 
although very hard. 

For the bottom layers any of the in¬ 
ferior kinds of stone may be used when 
good stone has to be brought from a dis¬ 
tance. the surface layer only being 
formed of the best variety obtainable. 
The softer varieties are often used for 
the lower layers on account of the less 
cost of breaking. Slag, or refuse from 
furnaces has been used to some extent. 

The French engineers give the follow¬ 
ing coefficients of quality of materials 
used on the national roads, as the re¬ 
sult of their experience. 

Coefficients of quality of Road Mater- 


ials. 




Granitic gravel 

23 * 

8 


quartz gravel 

21 . 

4 


Trap 

20 



quartz 

10 

to 

25 

in one instance 

4. 

8 


Basalt; 

12 

to 

20 

Porphyry 

10 

to 

20 

in one instance 

5 



quartzite 

11 

to 

18 

Devonian schist 

18 






























35. 


Schist 


to 

12 

4 

Sandstone 

12 

to 

16 

Granite 

6 

to 

20 

generally 

10 

to 

12 

Syenite 

12 


' 

Gneiss 

9 

to 

12 

Silicious pebbles and gravel 

8 

to 

19 

in oiie instance 

6 



Silex 

8 

to 

16 

Chalk flings 

7 

to 

11. 

Silicious limestone 

8 

to 

18 

generally about 

10 

to 

12 

Compact limestone 

14 



Magnesian limestone 

12 



Carboniferous limestone 

9 



Oolitic limestone 

5 

to 

12 

Lias limestone 

5 

to 

10 

Jurassic limestone 

5 

to 

8 

Limestone 


to 

12 

Mean of all France 

10. 

63 



When it is necessary to decide between 
different kinds of stone, their relative 
value for road metal may be ascertained, 
to a certain extent by a series of tests. 
Boulnois recommends the following**” 

f1) Ascertain from local persons such 
as masons, quarrymen, and others, their 
opinion of the qualities of the stones 














■ 
























' 







98 . 

in the neighborhood. 

(2) Make a trial of the stone for 
toughness. This can be done by setting 

a good stone-breaker to work upon a heap 
of 'the stone as quarried and carefully 
watching how much he can break in an 
hour 

(3) Ascertain what power the stone 
has to resist abrasion. This is done in 
France by putting the broken metal into 
a revolving cylinder and then carefully 
noting by weight what the cubes lose by 
contact with each other. Another plan 
may be adopted by pressing the stone a- 
gainst a grindstone with a uniform pres¬ 
sure, and noting the loss caused by such 
contact. 

f 4 } The power to resist compression 
may be easily ascertained by placing 
snail cubes in an hydraulic press and 
tv-ting under what pressures each cube 
will crush. 

(5) The effect of weather is not eas¬ 
ily ascertained artificially, although 
it is suggested that a good test may be. 
by soaking the stone in a saturated so¬ 
lution of sulphate of soda; and then on 
exposure to the air, if soft, it is said 









9? . 

the stone will disintegrate as if under 
the* action of thaw succeeding frost 

Another met lod which has been suggest - 
ed for testing the effect of weather, is 
to soak the stone in water and submit to 
freezing, by artificial means if neces¬ 
sary, and note the tendency to disinte¬ 
gration upon thawing The relative po¬ 
rosity. as shown by the per cent of wa¬ 
ter absorbed by specimens of different 

r 

stone, would probably be some guide as 
to the relative effect of the weather 
upon them. The only really satisfactory 
test, however, of the value of any s --one 
for road metal is obtained from the use 
of the stone ixi the road. 

(4) Stone Breaking and Stone Breakers 
In the time of Macadam and Telford the 
stone was broken by hand, as we have 
seen, by persons sitting, using a one 
pound hammer with a short handle. Later 
a hammer weighing two pounds, with a 
handle about three feet long / was used by 
men standing. 

The screenings v/ere separated from the 
larger stones by using a several pronged 
fork instead of a shovel for handling 
the broken stone. The prongs were about 




98. 


an inch and a half apart. 

The size of the stone was tested by a 
ring with an inside diameter usually 
2 inches. When the stone was gauged 

by weight instead of size, the inspector 
used a small balance scale for the pur¬ 
pose . 

At the present day stone is almost in¬ 
variably broken by machinery. 

There are two distinct classes of 
stone breakers that are used quite ex¬ 
tensively. In one of these the stone is 
broken between iron jaws on3 of wha,h 
has an osclifting motion; in the other 
the stone is broken by being pressec a- 
gainst the inside of an iron frame by a 
spindle having a gyrating motion. 

The construction of these will be 
seen by referring to the figures. 

Fig. 57 shows a section of the first 
form or the **Blake- ’ style of stone 
crusher, as manufactured by the Farrel 
Foundry and Machine Co. of Ansonia»Conn. 
F F is a cast iron frame, H is the fixed 
!aw, and J is the movable jaw which is 
hung upon the bar K. P P are piates of 
chilled steel between which the Stones 
are crushed. E is a pitman connecting 








































































99 . 

the eccentric at C with the toggles, G G, 
^blch give the iaw,J, an oscillating mo— 
tion. W is a wedge, raised or lowered 
by the nut, N, to regulate the size of 
the stone. R is a rubber spring which 
is compressed by the forward motion of 
the jaw J, and aids its return, B is 
the fly wheel, and D the driving pulley. 

This crusher is made in several dif¬ 
ferent sizes as shown in the table on 

page 100, which is taken from the cata- 

a 

logue of the maniac tures. 

The 15*'by 9"size is the one most used 
for road work. 

Fig*58 shows one of these crushers 
mounted on wheels so as to be easily mov 
ed from place to place for road, building 
and repairing. 

Fig.59 snows a perspective sectional 
v 1 evf of the second form of stone breaker, 
the Gates Hock and Ore Breaker» made by 
the Gates Iron Works of Chicago, Ill. 

q, q, is the frame which has an inclined 
diaphragm for discharging the broken 
stone. C, the top, has three openings 
for receiving the stone to be broken,and 
also has a bearing in the center for the 
main shaft.G~ The base,5, forms a bear- 








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F 102. 

xng for tae gear. L, which has attached 
to it an eccentric box, D. This eccen- 
Itric forms a bearing for the lower end 

of the shaft, G and imparts a gyrating 
motion to i t, which crushes the stone be¬ 
tween tne t lu ed cone»F, and the liners 
- The gear, L, is driven by tne pinion 
M. which is keyed to the shaft, X. The 
shaft, X, is driven by tne pulley, TO, by 
means of the break pin, 'U , which pro¬ 
jects into the hub,V. This pin is so 
proportioned that it will break before 
axiy other part of the machine does. 

The table on page 101 is from figures 
given in the catalogue of the manufact¬ 


ures . 

Fig.60 is another cut of this breaker. 

Fig.61 shows one of these breakers 
mounted on wheels. 

For screening broken stone a revolv¬ 
ing cylindrical screen formed of sec¬ 
tions having circular holes of different 
h 2 es is generally used. This receives 
tne broken stone directly from the 
crusher and separates it into the dif¬ 
ferent sizes required. Figs. 58 and 62 
show two forms of revolving screens. 

Stone broken by hand is superior, for 







. 











* 



103. 

road metal» to that broken by machinery 

as it is more nearly cubical in form, 

but as it iosts at least twice as much 

# 

it is very seldom used. 

The practice of separating the stone 
into different’ sizes» although generally 
followed>' is opposed by some as not only 
useless* out as an injury to theroad, as 
it causes a large per eentage of voids 
in the roaa covering, thereby allowing 
the surface water to run through to the 
soil beneath. Stone broken to a 2 inch 
gauge contains* on the average, about 
45$ of voids when spread loosely. In a 
well consolidated road the voids are as 
much as 25$ of the entire volume. It is 

a question worth considering whether it 

/ 

is not better to use a proportion of 
smaller stone to partly fill these voids, 
than to allow them to be filled with mud, 
which will, ultimately be the case. 

(5) Hoad Rolling and Road Hollers. 

r • 

There are three methods of rolling a 

road 

1st- By the Traffic. 

2nd. By Horse Rollers. 

3rd. By Steam Rollers. 

In the time of Macadam and Telford 







































































roads wore always consplidated by the 
traffic> as rollers were not brought 
into use until a much latter period. 

The gorse roller was introduced in 
Franc e in 1833, 


It was not used in England until after 
1842* as Sir J-F.Burgoyne, in a paper 
written that year, describes the prac¬ 
tice of rolling in France and Germany, 
and recommends its introduction into 
England. 

The steam roller was not used until 
after I860. The first one used in Paris 
was about 1864, in England about 1872. 

There are various forms of horse roll¬ 
ers- One consists of a hollow cast 
iron cylinder which can be filled with 
water to increase the weight The roll¬ 
er is mounted in a circular frame which 
allows it to be drawn in either direct¬ 
ion without turning. Such a roller 
4 1/2 feet in diameter and 3 1/2 feet 


long weighs about 4 tons when empty, 

A roller used in the few York Citv Be- 
partment of Parks, was composed :■ f two 
cylinders of cast iron, 7 feet in diam¬ 
eter and each 2 1/2 feet long* mounted 
abreast in a timber framework. In the 








105 • 

ends of the cylinders were openings Into 
which broken stone or gravel could be 
placed to increase the weight. This 
roller.empty, weighed e 1/2 tons, and, 
could be loaded to 12 tons. 

Another form of roller, which is used 
quite commonly, consists of cast iron 
discs placed sine by side on an axle. 
These discs are about 4 inches thick and 

are of two diameters varying by about 8 
inches. 

The best method of consolidating a 
road is by a steam roller, Several 
kinds of steam rollers are in use in 
this country. The Aveling & Porter, an 
English Roller, Fig.63, is made in vari¬ 
ous sizes from 10 to 20 tong. The'most 
common size in use for all classes of 
work is the 15 ton roller. 

The Harrisburg Roller, Fig.64, made at 

Harrisburg, Pa. is made in three sizes, 

\ 

10 ? 12, and 15 tons. 

The Springfield Roller, made at 

« 

Springfield, Ohio/ in Fig. 65* 

is made in three sizes, 10, 12 1/2 and 

15 tons. 

The Lindelof Roller made at Erie, Pa. 
is largely used for rolling asphalt 













106 . 


pavements. 

In England, the rollers in most common 
use are those made by Aveling & Porter, 
and by Thos.Green & Son. 

The disadvantages of compacting a road 
by traffic are, 

1st. The length of time required. 

2nd- The necessity of keeping man 
continually at work filling the ruts 
while the consolidation is going on. 

3rd, The great, waste of power occas¬ 
ioned by hauling loads on the rough^ 

loose surface. 

/ 

4th. The excessive wear of vehicles. 

5th- The cruelty to horses. 

6th;. The unnecessary wear of the road 
metal which takes place before the road 
is consolidated. 

7th- The inferiority of the road when 
consolidated, occasioned by the corners 
and edges of the stones wearing off - 
leaving them more or less rounded. 

The disadvantages of horse rolling are 

1st. The horses f eqt tear up the read 
surface. 

2nd. The angular stones are injurious 
to horses feet. 

ic 

3rd. It is impract A abie to use a roll- 























































107 . 

er Heavy enough to consolidate the road 
as It can be done with a steam roller, 
on account of the muraber of horses that 
would be required to draw it. 

4th* Horse rolling is slower and more 
expensive than steam rolling. 

A weight per inch run of nearly 500 
lbs. mhy be obtained with a steam roller 
while it is impracticable to get a 
weight per inch of much more than one 
half this amount with a horse roller* 

In a paper read before the American 
Society of Civil Engineers in 1879, Mr. 
E.P.North gives his experience with 
traffic, horse and steam rolling as fol¬ 
lows > - 

8 Some refuse Westchester marble (a 
very soft rock) was delivered on some of 
the roads at about 25 cents per cubic 
yard > and hand broken in place at the 
rat© of about 1 cubic yard per hour. A 
portion was rolled before any traffic 
went over it, some after about two weeks 
of traffic and some after six weeks; of 
the rest, part was horse rolled and part 
compacted by wheels; the quality of the 
stone, traffic, etc were very nearly the 
same; that not rolled by the steam roll- 
















108 


er soon wore into 
tioned Is, after 


holes, the first men- 
s t a ading t wo winters > 


in very fair surface; the others de- 
creasing iii tuo order in which tney. are 


mentioned- This difference is so notic 


able that anyone could pick out their 
sequenc e as mexit ioned. e ? 

A word may be said here with reference 
to binding material. Macadam, as we 
have seen, would not allov/ the use of 
binding material in any form, while Tel¬ 
ford used it invariably. The necessity 
of binding material on a road compacted 
with a roli.er is well shown by the ex^ 
perienc e of Mr*Wm.Grant pa the roads of 
the New York Central Park. He says, 8? At 
the comiAeneement' of the Macadam roads, 
tne experiment was tried of rolling and 

compacting the stone by a strict adher~ 

♦ 

ance to Macadam’s theory - that of care¬ 
fully excluding all airt and foreign 
material from the stones, and trusting 


to the ac-tion of the roller and the 
travel of teams to accomplish the vorl 
of consolidation. The bottom layer of 
stone was sufficiently compacted in this 
way to form and retain, under the action 
of the rollers, (after the compression 













109 . 

had. reached about its practical limit ) 
an even and regular surface- but the top 
layer - with the use of the heavy roller 
loaded to its greatest capacity - it was 
found impracticable to solidify and re¬ 
duce to such a surface as would prevent 
the stones from loosening and being dis¬ 
placed by the action of wagon wheels and 
horses feet. No amount of rolling was 
sufficient to produce a thorough binding 
effect upon the stones, or to cause 
such a mechanical union and adjustment 
of their sides and angles together as to 
enable them mutually to assist each 
other in resisting displacement- The 
rolling was persisted in. with the roll¬ 
er adjusted to different weights up to 
its maximum load, until it was apparent 
that the opposite effect from that in¬ 
tended was being produced. The stones 
became rounded by the excessive attri- 
t ion they were subjected to, their more 
angular parts wearing away, and the 
weaker and smaller ones being crushed- 
The experiment was not pusnod beyond 
this point. It was conclusively shown, 
that brdken stones of the ordinary sizes 
and of the very best Quality for wear 




' 










' 

1 






1,10« 

a,iid durability, witix tiie greatest care 
and attention to all the necessary con¬ 
ditions of rolling and compression* 
would not consolidate in the effectual 

requ I red 

manner A for tue surface of a road while 
entirely isolated xrom, and independent 
of, other substances. The utmost ef¬ 
forts to compress and solidify them 
while in this condition, after a certain 
limit had been reached- were unavailing." 

The best material fcr a binder is 
probably stone screenings from the 
crusher. Sand or gravel are also good 
for the purpose but clay or loam should 
never be used-. A thorough watering of 
the road will hasten consolidation. 

The sides of a road should be rolled 
firs’s, so that when the rolling is done 
on the higher parts the material will 
not spread out at the sides for lack of 
support. 

In regard to the length of time that 
the rolling should be continued, it-is 
difficult to give any fixed rule. In 
Paris, the custom has been to continue 
the rolling until the surface is so hard 
that a single stone placed upon it will 
be crushed under the roller- 


















I 


111 . 


The following extract, from a paper 

read, by Mr.Deacon before the Institution 
of Civil Engineers in 1379, will give an 

idea of the amount of rolling required- 
* 1 The Author has tried many methods. 
Under a 15 ton steam roller, proceeded 
by a watering cart, 1200 yards of trap- 
rock macadam without blinding, can only 
be moderately consolidated by twenty- 
seven hours continous rolling. If blind 
ed with hard rock chippings from a stone 
breaker, the same area may be moderately 
consolidated by the same roller in eigh" 
teen hours. If blinded with siliceous 
gravel from three-fourths inch to the 
size of a pin’s head, mixed with about 
one-fourth part of macadam sweepings ob¬ 
tained in wet weather, the area may be 
thoroughly consolidated in nine hours.’ 3 

(6) Modifications of Macadam and Tel¬ 
ford Roads. 

Many modifications of the methods of 
Macadam and Telford have been used, some 
differing quite materially and others 
only slightly from theirs. 

a modification of the Telford road 
l Fig-66) used by Sir John Macneill on 
the Highgate Archway Roaa near London in 





112 . 

1828 > had a foundation consisting of a 
six inch layer of concrete composed of 
one part of Roman cement, one part of 
sand, and eight of stone. in the sur¬ 
face, while it was yet soft, grooves 
four inches apart were made with a tri¬ 
angular piece of wood extending from the 
center to the sides, both to hold the 
road metal, and to allow the water which 
might percolate through it, to flow off. 

On this foundation, as soon as it had 
set, was spread a layer of broken stone 
six inches thick. This form of con¬ 
struction has been very little used, but 
where the ground is very wet it has its 
advantages. 

Another modification of the Telford 
construction has a foundation of rubble 
stone laid flat instead of on edge, as 
in Fig. 67, This form of foundation has 
been used to some extent, but is consid¬ 
ered inferior to the pavement. It was 
common in France prior to 1775 when 
Tresegaut recommended setting the stones 
on edge. 

The principal objection to it is,that, 
as tine large stones are not weaged in 
place as in the pavement,the wheels in 








113 . 


passing over them, 


cause a motion among 


them which 

c ondition « 


keeps the surface in 
Macaaam speaks of a 


a loose 
road. 


over Breslington Common in England, 
where flag stones had been laid on the 


soil as a foundation for the road 


cover¬ 


ing- The surface was kept in a loose 
state by the motion of the stones, which 
were found, when the road was dug open, 
to be turned upon their edges* 

Fig. 68 shows a form of construction 
that was used on 5th. Avenue, New York. 
It had a Telford foundation eight inches 
thick* a layer of two and one-half inch 
stones three inches thick, a layer of 
two inch stones four inches thick, a 
layer of coarse screenings one inch 
thick, and a layer of fine screenings 
one half inch thick. The broken stone 


and screenings were of trap rock. 

V 

Fig.69 shows a form of construction 
that was used in Chicago until within 


4 - • rr 

u 


fo or three years. It has a Telford 


foundation seven inches thick, On this 
is spread a seven inch la 3 rer of broken 
stone that has passed through a two and 


one-half inch 
stone smaller 


c i r c u ]. a r n ole, wit h n o 
than will pass through a 



- 

. 






> 



■ ■Mr 













one and one half inch circular hole. 

This is covered with a layer of stone 
screenings , which. e.fter being thorough™ 
ly rolled, shall have a thickness of 
o n e - h a If Inc h 

On this is spread a layer of crushed 
granite, the largest to pass through a 
one and one-half inch , and the smallest 
through a three-quarter inch circular 
hole - This is covered witha layer of 
fine, clean bank gravel, which, after 
rolling, shell have a thickness of one.* 
half inokv On this is spread a layer of 
fine granite screenings one inch thick, 
and the surface is again rolled- Each 
layer is flooded with water before roll- 
ing • 

Fig. 70 shows a form of construction 
that is very common at the present time. 
It consists of a Telford foundation 
eight inches thick covered with a four 
inch layer of broken stone, a layer of 
screenings being added as a binding ma.- 
terial . Many of the park roads in and 
about. Boston are built in this way. 

The method of construction usea in 
Chicago at the present time is snown in 
Fip'. 71. The spedfications for this 







115 • 


are as follows,- 

Grading. Before paving, the street 
shall he graded , to conform to stages or 
profiles, to be given by the Engineer in 
charge, and thoroughly flooded, rammed 
and rolled, to give it a solid bed. 

Macadam.-~-0n the roadbed thus formed 
and completed will be spread a layer of 
clean, broken stone, entirely free from 
dust and dirt, not less than seven (7 8? ) 
inches in depth in the center, and not 
less than five (5 38 ) inches at the sides 
after being thoroughly rolled. 

The stones shall be practically uni¬ 
form in quality, and as near an approach 
to a cube in form as possible, and brok¬ 
en so as to pass through a ring not 
greater than four (4• 0 ) inches, and not 
less than two and one-half (2 1/2 8 ) 
inches in diameter, and all stones that 
are wedge shape and do not approach uni¬ 
formity of measurement on their siaes, 
shall be taken from the roadbed, and no 
stones will be allowed to remain which 
are not sound, strong and equable in 
si&e and quality of material* On the a- 

bove layer will be spread lime stone 

\ 

screenings, or bank gravel, as designate 


. 








M 






He - 

oa by the Commissioner of Public Works, 
in sufficient quantity to fill up all 
interstices? and then flooded and rolled 
with a iitceon {15) ton roller until the 
roadway'is firmly compacted arid solid, 


and given a thoroughly even surface* 
The above to be covered with a layer 
of medium lime stone broken so as to 


pass tnrought a ring two 
diameter exitireXy free 


{2 ‘ ■ ) inches in 
from dust or 


dirt, ana uniform in size and quality* 

The interstices to be filled with lime 

» # 

stone screenings, or bank gravel, and 


flooded. This Iryer shal? not be less 

than two (2 sa ) inches in depth at the 
sides, aad not less than four {4* * ) in¬ 
ches at the center? after being thor¬ 


oughly rolled. 


The above to he covered witn a topping 
of crushed granite, cube shaped, as near 

as possible, and broken so as to pass 
through a two (2 M ) inch ring, which 
shall not be less than four {* p ) inches 
in depth at the center? and not less 
than two (2 e ") inches on the sides, af¬ 
ter thorough rolling. The interstices 
to, be filled with best quality of fine 
or screened bank gravel, or lime stone 






117 . 

screenings* ana rolled with a fifteen 
fio) ton roller* with occasional flooding 
of the pavement♦ until the street is 
fix inly compac ,ed and soli a - This layer 
shall then be covered with granite 
scree.hi^s to a uni orm depth of on e ^ 
half (X/2 ! ) inch* and rolled ana sprink- 

1 ed unti 1 tlie same is f t mi ancl unyield" 
mg. In all the above, the depressions 
must be tilled as' the rolling progresses. 


e«« 


3 . 


A more common way of constructing 
road of this kind would be as snown in 
Fig * 72, each layer being rollon but no 
screenings used except on the top layer. 

Fig. 73 shows a construction that has 
been used quite extensively in the last 
few years. Several miles have been laid 
in Bridgeport* Conn, and with very sat¬ 
isfactory results. The soil is brought 
to the required grade and is then rolled 
with a fifteen ton roller- The stone 
used is trap *broken Into two inch pieces 
A four inch layer is spread on the pre- 
par ac soil ana rolled, screenings being 
added as a binding material. 

VfitTa hard and tough material, a good 
cry soil* and light traffic, the four 






- 





























118 . 

inch construction, as used in Bridgeport 
may suffice; hut for a heavy traffic 
ever wet ground* the Telford sub-pave¬ 
ment with a layer of broken stone above 
it from 4 to 8 inches thick* is pre¬ 
ferred by most engineers, a layer of 
sand is sometimes spread upon the pre¬ 
pared roadbed before the stone is put on 
to keep the mud from working up between 
the stones. This is advisable in wet 


around* whether the Telford pavement is 

— £ 

used or not, 

(?) Maintenance and Repair of Broken 
Stone Roads. 

The proper maintenance of a road con* 
sists in keeping its surface smooth and 
hard * removing the material worn out and 
replacing it by new material> and keep¬ 
ing open the side d 11 ehos » cu 1 vert s and. 
arains * A broken stone i oah i c^c^uir es 
constant attention to keep if smooth and 
hard. When a rut appears it should be 
tt once filled with stones or it will 
increase in size very rapidly* 

The general practice in European coun 
tries is to put a laborer in charge oi a 
certain length or road upon which he is 
continually euploy.u opening ditches. 


a 
















Jt 4- \ 





























119 . 


removing the mud, and applying fresh 
road metal * The length of road which 
should be given to one man varies wi.th 
the traffic , being sometimes much less 
than a mile and sometimes five miles or 
more* At certain seasons of the year 
trhen extensive repairs are required * he 
is assisted by other laborers. 

In France, where there probably exists 
the most perfect system of road mainten¬ 
ance in the world, two methods are used. 


Upon roads of moderate traffic, where 
the average daily tonnage does not ex“ 
ceed about 30 tons per foot of width, 
the road covering is kept at the origi¬ 
nal thickness by constant additions* As 
soon as a depression appears it is 
filled with a thin layer of stone,which, 
in a few clays, becomes as smooth as the 
rest of the road. Except in wet weather 
it is usual to loosen the surface of the 


depression with a pick, 


before applying 


the stones, to hasten 

and sometimes a small 

% 

ing material is added 
should always be smal 


the consolidation, 
quantity of bind* 
The s e pat ciie s 
, as otherwise the 











120 . 

"t t .1 i ic wx avoid rnem» When there nr© 
several depressions near together, the 
worst places should be patched first and 
allowed to become smooth before patching 

the others. 

The stones for repairing should be 
somewhat smaller than those ordinarily 
used in constructing a road. The larg¬ 
est should not be over one inch and a 
half in longest dimension. They are 
kept in stone depots at short intervals 
along the side of the road. 

Experiments made upon the roads of 
France show that the wear of good road 
metal is about one cubic yard per mile 
per year for each ‘'collar 1 ® passing 
over it per day. A ®'collar®' is an 
animal drawing a load, four animals 
drawing empty vehicles being reckoned as 
one '“collar 9 ®. This will serve as a 
basis for estimating the amount that 
ought to be used on any given piece of 
road to keep it at the original thick¬ 
ness . 

Upon roads of heavy traffic, where the 
average daily tonnage exceeds about 30 
tons per foot of width, it is not at¬ 
tempted to continually replace the ma- 





























, 

* 

















































121 . 


t erial worn out > but only such repairs 
are macio as are necessary to keep the 
surface in good condition. The covering 
is allowed to wear as thin as possible 
with safety, when a thick layer of brok¬ 
en stone is added, and rolled as in 
forming a new road. Before applying 
this layer the surface of the old road 
should be loosened so that the new ma¬ 
terial, will bind with it . This is best 
done by steel points which are inserted 
in holes in the tires of the driving 
wheels of steam road rollers. 

The dust and mud should not be allowed 
to remain on the surface of a macadam¬ 
ized road. Several methods of removing 
t h era a r e empl eyed. 

A long handled broom of twigs is some¬ 
times used, the sweeper standing in the 
middle of the road and sweeping from 
sid e to side. 


A liana sweeping machine • consisting of 
a wide broom mounted on a wheel and hav¬ 
ing handles similar to a ?meelbarrow, is 


also used. 

Hand scrapers of 
to a hoe are often 


wood or steel similar 
employed for removing 


mu a - 





























A hand scraping machine consists of 
several scrapers fastened abreast on a 
horizontal bar, which is mounted on two 
wheels. This is worked back and forth 
across the road* scraping at eacn trip a 
width of 4 feet* 


Sweeping machines drawn by horses are 
used in cities. A very common kind con 1 
sists of a cylindrical revolving brush 
mounted on wheels at an oblique angle 
with the axle- It sweeps a width of n~ 
bout 7 feet and leaves the dirt in a 
line at the side. Fig.74 shows the 
• 3arnard*-Castle * * Wrought~iron Street 
Sweeper which sweeps a width of 7 feet 


6 inches. 

Scrapers drawn by horses are also used 

3- Gravel Roads. 

When it is not desirable to go to the 
expense of making a broken scone road, a 
gravel covering is often used and makes 
an excellent surface for a country road 
or village street * For pleasure- drives 
a gravel surface well maintained is not 

exc ell ed« 

The gravel for a road covering should 
not be composed of clean and water worn 
pebbles, as that found along the 


sea 







1 









123 . 


shore and river banks, but should con¬ 
tain a certain amount of earthy matter 
to serve as a binding material. Bank 

gravel often contains too large a pro¬ 
portion of earthy matter which should be 
screened out for the top layer. 

The ordinary gravel road, Fig.76 is 
from 8 to 12 inches thick and is usually 

k* 

constructed in layers of about 4 inches. 

The bottom layer may be of unscreened 
bank gravel, laid on the surface of the 
roadbed* which has been previously 
rolled if not sufficiently solid. This 
layer is rolled until partially consoli¬ 
dated, and another layer is added and 
rolled. If required, a third layer may 
follow and be treated in the same manner 

i 

r . \ 

The gravel for the top layer should be 
screened. For this purpose two wire 
screens are commonly used one with wires 
1/2 to 3/4 inch apart, and the other 
with wires 1 1/2 to 2 inches apart* The 
pebbles which will not pass through the 
coarse screen and the fine earthy matter 
which passes through the fine screen 
should be rejected. If the gravel used 
does not have an excessive amount of 
earthy material the use of the fine 





. 



as a 


124 


* 


Screen may be dispensed with. 

certain amount of binding material 
necessary - 



The rolling should always begin at the 
sides , wnich shoul cl be made quite solid. 


before the roller is moved to the cen¬ 
tral portion of the road, so as to pre¬ 
vent the gravel from working out toward 
the sides* If the gravel is dry it 
should be watered as the rolling pro- 


c eeds . 

Some of the finest gravel roads that 
have ever been constructed are those in 
Central Park, New York* These have a 
foundat ion of rubble stone ; or the Tel¬ 
ford sub-pavement. 

The rubble stone foundation has a 
thickness of 11 inches and is composed 
of stones from 4 to 12 inches long* The 
gravel was unscreened and was put on in 
two layers making a total thickness of 


5 to 6 inches. (Fig*77). 

The Telford foundation was 7 to 8 
inches thick and the gravel on this was 
5 1/2 inches thick deposited in two lay 
ersi the top one of which was screened- 


(Fig-78) The bottom layer was rolled 
with a light horse roller and the top 







layer wi^h a 
weighing six 

217 lbs. per 

every part of 


horse roller five 
and one half tuns, 
inch. This passed 
the surface from 


feet long 
being 
ov er 


100 times. 


4. Corduroy Roads * 

A corduroy road consists of logs cut 
in lengths of 10 to 15 feet ana laid 
side by side upon the natural soli. 

Sometimes a part of the logs are split 
to a triangular section and used to lev¬ 
el up between the others as shown in 
Fig.79. 

To make the surface as smooth as pos¬ 
sible a layer of brushwood and a cover¬ 
ing of earth arc often added. 

Over soft or swampy ground such roads 
are very useful as a temporary measure, 
and they have been quite extensively 
used in some of the timber regions of 
ohis country* 

A description of a journey from Pitts.- 
burgh to Erie a part of which was ever a 
corduroy roads has already been given in 
the words of David Stevenson on page 12. 

5. Plank.Roads * 

Plank roads were quite extensively 
used in this country thirty or forty 













, 

' 







: •' I 




* 








126 . 


years ago. 

The usual method of construction was 
as shown in Fig.80. Two lines of 
stringers were bedaed in the ground a- 
bout five feet apart and across these 
planks were laid usually 8 feet long and 
5 or 4 inches thick. The ends of the 
planks were not laid in line, but there 
was a break of a few inches at short in~ 
tervals to allow vehicles to easily get 
upon the planks from the sides. There 
was always an earth road at one side of 
the plank road to allow wagons to turn 
out in passing. 

When there was a large amount of traf¬ 
fic so that a greater width than 8 feet 
xvas needed it was found better to lay 
another track , rather than to make a 
double track 16 feet wide, as it was 
found that on the wide track the greater 
part of the traffic followed the center, 
thus causing unequal wear. 

On new plank roads the tractive force 
is verv small, but the planks wear rap- 
idly and soon become warped and dis- 
plac ed• 

In some of the cities near timber re¬ 
gions of the western part of the United 
























* 








127 . 

Stat es, the entire surface of the street 
is covered with planks. The planks are 
usually 4 inches thick and extend in one 
piece from the gutter to the center of 
the street . 

6. Charcoal Hoads. 

In some parts of Michigan and Wiscon¬ 
sin - roads have been made with a cover* 
ing of charcoal. A description of the 
method of constructing them is given as 
follows i.- 

1 'Timber from six to eighteen inches 
through is cut twenty--four feet long* 
and piled up lengthwise in the center of 
the road? about five feet high, being 
nine feet wide at the bottom, and two at 
the top? and then covered with straw and 
earth in the manner of coal-pits. The 
earth required to cover the pile? taken 
from either side? leaves two good-sized 
ditches and trie timber? although not 
split? is easily charred; and? when 
charred? the earth is removed to the 
side of the ditches, the coal raked 
down? to a width of fifteen feet? leav¬ 
ing it two feet thick at the center and 
one at the sides*and the road is com- 
pi e t ed " • 










■ 



‘ 




128 * 


This was found to make a very fair 

road* firm and dry and free from ruts. 

It is evident that this manner of eon* 

structing a road would only be adopted 
in a new country, where the timber was 
of no market value, 

7. Shell. 

Along the South Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts, oyster shells are used quite ex¬ 
tensively for forming the road surface. 
This form of covering is used not only 
for roads but also for streets in ma ny 
of the cities. For light traffic it is 
found to give very satisfactory results, 
although wearing much faster than brok¬ 
en stone. 


■ 


























. 





< 










129 , 

STREETS, 

<" a *- •» r ‘ 'W£- oit c*u r*rv gp - 

ARRANGEMENT. 

In laying out the streets of a new 
city or village, the most natural ar¬ 
rangement is the rectangular. With this 
system the least possible area is used 
up in streets, and the remaining area is 
in the most convenient shape for build¬ 
ing purposes* In such a system,however, 
a great amount of time is necessarily 
wasted in going from one point to an¬ 
other, as it is always necessary to 
travel the two sides of a right angled 
triangle of which the straight line be-* 
tween the points is the hypothenuse, un¬ 
less the two points are on the same 

ex tra 

street. The ^distance which it is neces¬ 
sary to travel may vary from zero to .41 

» 

times the shortest distance between the 
points. Many of the cities in this 
country are laid out on the rectangular 
system, Philadelphia and Chicago being 
good examples. Fig.81 shows a map of a 
portion of the latter city. 

The advantages of such a system over 

_/> • 

the irregular arrangement shown in the 
map of Boston, Fig.82, are very apparent. 

An improvement on the rectangular sys~ 



» 



130 . 

tern is made in the cities of Washington 
and Indianapolis, Figs.83 and 84, where 
diagonals are combined with the rectan¬ 
gular system. An extension of the 
Indianapolis system, as shown in Fig.85, 
would undoubtedly be an improvement. 

In the western part of this country, 
where the land is cut up into sections, 
it is customary to have the streets run 
East and West, and North and South. In 
many places the ground is so nearly 
level that there is no disadvantage in 
this, but it would not be advisable to 
follow this method if the topography 
were such as to make other directions 
more favorable for the construction of a 
sewer system, or for the laying of the 
street grades. In fact, it is hot ad¬ 
visable to stick too closel j to any reg¬ 
ular system, when, by so doing, steep 
grades are made necessary. Sometimes 
when a new town is laid out along a 
railroad the streets are built parallel 
to, and at right angles to the railroad. 

The most convenient sizes for blocks 
has been found to be pbout 300 feet 
square. In some places the section is 
divided into sixteen rows of blocks in 



151. 

one direction, and eight or sixteen in 
the other, making the blocks, from cen¬ 
ter to center of street. 530 feet by 660 

feei, or 330 feet by 330 feet. The lat¬ 
ter is probably a better arrangement * as 
660 feet is rather too long a distance 
between streets. 

An alley should extend through the 
middle of a block in one direction to 
give access to the back of lots. 

In Chicago the blocks are divided into 
lots 25 by 125 feet and this size has 
been found, the most convenient in many 
places. 

Fig.86 shows a block one eighth of a 
mile long and one sixteenth of a mile 
wide, divided into lots. 

The lower part of Fig.87 shows the 
same method applied to a block one six¬ 
teenth of a mile square and the upper 
part shows a good method of subdividing 
a block with a diagonal street through 

it . 

GRADE * 

The grade of a street, unless it is so 
situated that it is necessary for many 
heavy loads to pass over it, may be 
somevrhat steeper than that allowable cn 


* 


132 . 


an important road, for it is usually the 
case that any given point can be reached 
by a somewhat longer route on which the 
grades are easier than on the most di¬ 
rect route. Grades as steep ob even 
steeper than 1 in 10 are not uncommon, 
but they should never be allowed except 
on unimportant streets, over which it is 
not necessary to haul heavy loads. 

For purposes of drainage it is advis¬ 
able for a street to have a minimum 
grade of about 1 in 200. A method some¬ 
times adopted for giving proper drainage 
where the ground is level, is to give 
the gutters a slope, while the center of 

tne street remains level. This necessi* 

s 

tates a constantly changing tranyerse 
slope, varying from a minimum at the 
summits tc a maximum at the outlets of 

the gutters. The curb stone in such a 

\ 

case may be set on a level grade, paral¬ 
lel to the center of the street, or may 
follow the grade of the gutter at a uni¬ 
form height above it. , The former method 
is preferable, as it gives a better ap¬ 
pearance to the street. 

CROSS-SECTION. 

A street.as usually constructed, in- 



135 . 

eludes a carriage way in the center> and 
a footpath, or sidewalk on each side* 

For a business street, this is all that 
is required » 

For residence streets or pleasure 
drives > it is very common to have grass 
plats, with trees growing upon them, be- 
tween the sidewalk and carriage way, and 
sometimes two carriage ways are built 
with a strip of grass ground between 
them. 

Alleys very rarely need to be provided 
with footpaths. If for any reason one 
is needed, a narrow one on one side will 
be sufficient. 

The width of a street should seldom 

be less than 50 feet. For principal 

✓ 

business streets a width of 100 feet or 
more may often be required. A very com¬ 
mon width in the west is 4 rods or 66 
feet. Alleys should never be less than 
14 feet wide. To prevent the surface of 
a street from being continually torn up 
it has been proposed that sewers, water 
pipes etc- be laid in the alleys, in 
which case a width of 20 feet would not 
be too great. For most important resi¬ 
dence streets or boulevards, in which a 




134 . 

wide strip of the street is used for a 
park, as great a width as 200 feet is 
sometimes allowed. 

The roadway snould have a slope from 
the center each way, which may vary from 
1 in 20 for earth streets to 1 in 50 for 
smooth impervious surfaces like asphalt. 
A slope of 1 in 40 is very common with 
block pavements. With a steep longitud¬ 
inal grade it is customary to increase 
the transverse slope. 

The transverse slope in an alley is 
usually from the sides downward toward 
the center, making a single gutter along 
the middle* 

The width necessary for a sidewalk 
will of course depend upon the traffic 
passing over it. A width of 2 or 3 feet 
will usually suffice for a footpath in 
an alley, if any is needed, while for a 
wide business street two walks, each 15 
feet wide or even mere may he required. 
For the ordinary street the width of 
each sidewalk varies from 1/4 to 1/2 
that of the roadway. 

The sidewalk should have a fall from 
the street line toward the gutter, vary.- 
lug from 1 inch in 2 feet to 1 inch in 









155 . 


5 feet, according to the material of 
which it is composed <> 

The footpath should be separated from 
the roadway by a curb, the top of which 
is usually from 6 to 10 inches above the 
gutters. In some of the cities of the 
Northwest, where there is a great a- 
mount of snow, the top of the curb is 
sometimes as much as 18 inches above the 
gutter, so that the accumulation of snow 
in the roadway will not be higher than 
the sidewalks. 

Where the cellars of buildings extend 
under the sidewalks, as is very common 
in some cities, a retaining wall called 
a curb wall is built to hold back the 
earth under the roadway. On the top of 
this the curb is set. 

When the ground is of such a nature as 
to require subdrains, a longitudinal 
tile drain is often laid on each side of 
a road, under the curb. 

Figs. 88,89 and 90 show cross-sections 
of some typical streets and roads both 
in this and foreign countries. 

SURFACE OF R0ADV/.*Y, 

The surface of a street may be con¬ 
structed of any of the following materi- 


































156 




I- Earth. 

2. Broken Stone. 

3 . Gravel. 

4. Plank. 

5 * Shell. 

6. Cobblestone . 

7. Rubblestone* 

8. Stone Block. 

9. Wood Block. 

10 » Brick. 

11. Asphalt. 

12. Coal Tar. 

Of these, the first five have been 
discussed under roads, leaving the pave¬ 
ments to be considered. 

Before considering the different kinds 
of pavements, let us get a clear idea of 
the requisites of a good pavement. 

1st. A pavement should be smooth and 
hard so as to cause as little resistance 
to traction as possible, 

2nd. It should be so constructed as 
to give a good foothold for horses, and 
not become slippery under traffic. 

3rd. It should not be of such a ma¬ 
terial as will produce dust and mud. 

4th. It should be impervious to liq- 






















_ 











































137 • 


uicls so that it can be easily cleaned* 
and will not absorb filth. 

5thc It should be noiseless under 
traffic. 

6th. It should be so constructed as 
to be easily taken up and firmly relaid 
in small patches, so as to give access 
to gas and water pipes. 

7th* It should be' economical in first 
cost and maintenance. 

It is very evident that no pavement 
has yet been invented that will answer 
all these requirements. 

Earth, broken stone, gravel and shell 

V' • , 

cov erings give a good foothold. . are. 
practically noiseless, and are economi¬ 
cal in first cost , but are lacking to a 
greater or less degree in all the other 
requisit es of a good street covering. 

Plank, when new, possesses most of the 
re<luisit es of a good pavement, but it 
wears verv rapidly under heavy traffic. 
is expensive to maintain and when old 
absorbs and retains filth. 

6= Cobble Stone Pavement. 

Very little cobble stone pavement is 
laid at the present time, although there 
are many hundred miles of it in exist- 






158 . 

ence in the cities of the United States 

The best cobble stone pavement f Fig.91. 
is formed of egg shaped pebbles, from 6 
to 10 inches long, 4 to 8 inches wide 

and 3 to 6 inches thick, set with their 
larger end up, in a bed of sand or grav¬ 
el usually from 8 to 10 inches in depth. 
The sand should be moistened and rolled 
or rammed so as to be fairly compact. 

To allow this it must not be perfectly 
clean but must contain a small amount of 

V 

earthy matter. The stones, after being 
set, are rammed with a heavy rammer to a 
firm bed. care being taken that their 
tops are at the proper grade. A layer 
of sand or gravel is then spread over 
the surface and left to be worked into 
the joints by the traffic. 

In some cities a very inferior cobble 
stone pavement has been laid. Fig- 92, 
the stones being of very irregular sizes 
so that the exposed surfaces vary from 
5 to 12 or 14 inches in greatest dimen¬ 
sion • 

A cobble stone pavement possesses few 
of the recuisit es of a good pavement. 

Io gives a good foothold for horses when 
formed of small sized stones, and is 






1 vm 













■ ■ ■ . - • . ; 








139 . 


very cheap in first cost. It is very 
rough for traction, it is difficult to 
clean» the large joints being recepta¬ 
cles for mud> dust and filth * is ex¬ 
tremely noisy, and is not easily relaid 
in good shape when taken up for repairs 
to pipes. As the stones are smooth, and 
touch each. other only over a small area, 

i 

they settle out of place under heavy 
loads, and ruts soon appear,which make 
it very expensive to maintain such a 
pavement in its original condition. 

On account of the good foothold given 
ky a cobble stone pavement formed of 
small stones, it is often used between 
the rails of horse car tracks. 

7. Rubble Stone Pavement. 

Rubble stone pavement is formed of ir¬ 
regular shaped stones, from 5 to 6 inch¬ 
es deep, 5 to 6 inches wide, and 6 to 12 
inches long. 

They are laid on a bed of sand or 
gravel in the same manner as cobble 
stones, with their broadest edge up, so 
as to form a close pavement. Continuous 
joints in the direction of the traffic 
should be avoided as they would develop 

After laying, the stones 


into ruts- 







* 


% 


\ 







I 



140. 

should he rammed to an even surface and 
a firm bearing, and a layer of sand or 
gravel spread over the surface. 

The rubble stone pavement is superior 
to cobble stone, as it has a smoother 
surface and, as the sides of the stones 
are rough and have a larger area of con¬ 
tact with each other, it retains this 

other 

surface better. As to the qualities of 

/ 

a good pavement,it is little better than 
cobble stone. 

8. Stone Bloclc Pavement. 

A pavement formed of stone blocks. 

■with rectangular faces, is far superior 
to either the cobble or rubble stone 
pavement. 

The foundation of a stone block pave¬ 
ment, as most commonly laid, consists of 
a layer of sand or gravel, varying in 
thickness from 6 to 12 inches. This 
should be consolidated by ramming or 
rolling. An old cobble or rubble stone 
pavement, or a macadamized road makes a 
good foundation for a stone block pave¬ 
ment. A foundation of broken stone, 
prepared and rolled as for a macadamized, 
road, and having a thickness of 6 to 8 
inches, is often used. A pavement of 




141 



rough stones like the Telford foundation 


is often used * 

Tire best form of foundation consists 

of a layer of cement concrete having a 

thickness of 5 to 10 inches. The con¬ 
crete is made of cement, clean, sharp 
sand and broken stone usually not .over 
2 1/2 inches in greatest dimension. The 


proportions of the cement, sand and 
stone, vary somewhat in different cities 
but the following are quite common,- 
1 part of American cement, 2 parts of 
sand, and 5 to 6 parts of broken stone. 
If Portland cement is used, the proper- 0 
tions of sand and broken stone may be 


increased slightly. The sand and stone 
should be free from dirt or earthy mat¬ 
ter. Screened gravel pebbles are some¬ 
times used instead of the broken stone. 

The common way of making the concrete 
is to first mix the cement and sand 
dry, then add enough water to make a 
stiff mortar* The stone* having been 
wet, is then thoroughly mixed vrith the 
mortar. The concrete is then laid in 


place and compacted by ramming. 

In Liverpool the concrete foundation 
is made of 1 part of Portland cement. 


























. 




















142. 


6 to 6 parts gravel, and 7 to 8 parts 
broken stone. The cement and gravel are 
mixed dry and enough water is added to 
make the mixture retain its form when 

pressed in the hand. A layer of broken 

« 

stone is then spread upon the roadbed, 
which has been previously compacted. 

This is thoroughly wet and a layer of 
the mortar is spread over it, and then 
another layer of stone. The stone is 
then beaten with a flat sheet iron beat¬ 
er resembling a spade. Another layer of 
mortar and a layer of stone are added 
and beaten as before, and this process 
is repeated until the required thickness 
is attained. 

Foundations of bituminous concrete, 
have also been used- This is made as 
follows,- The required thickness of 
broken stone is spread over the prepared 
roadbed and rolled. Over it is then 
poured hot coal tar or a mixture of coal 
tar and creosote oil which fills the 
crevices between the stones. On this is 
spread a thin layer of small broken 
stone and the rolling repeated. 

Whatever the character of the founda¬ 
tion, a thin layer of sand or fine grav- 



« 


1*3 . 


el should be spread upon it to make a 
bed for the paving blocks. 

The first thing to be considered with 
reference to the block, is the kind of 

stone which shall be used. This will 
have to be decided to some extent by the 
locality* it sometimes being necessary 
to use an inferior material on account 
of the cost of bringing a better materi¬ 
al from a distance. 

A good paving stone should be hard ana 
tough and should not become slippery 
with wear. A stone that will split with 
a smooth fracture is preferable to one 
that will not. as less work will be re¬ 
quired to bring the faces to the desired 
/ » « 

smoothness. 

Nearly all the granites make good pav¬ 
ing blocks, the syenites being especial¬ 
ly fitted for this purpose. Some of 
them are, however, inclined to become 
slippery with wear. The trap rocks are 
also used and with satisfactory results. 
The sand stones are, as a general thing, 
too soft. The Medina sandstone, however 
is used to quite an extent in some parts 
of the West, and although not as hard 
as granite.it has the advantage of not 





1 * 3*4 * 


becoming slippery with wear » 
the lime stones are too soft, 
rapidly and fall to pieces in 
time. Yet some of the harder 


Most of 
wear very 
a short 
varieties 


are used and make a fairly good pavement* 
They do not become slippery. 

The size of the blocks we will next 
consider. The original Belgian blocks, 
as they were called (Fig.93a-), were 
usually cubical or nearly so, sometimes 
as large as 8 inches in each dimension. 


A very common size was 5 to 7 inches 


long, 5 to 6 inches wide, and 5 to 7 
inches deep* At one time blocks were 
used in lew York 10 to 18 inches long,5 
to 12 inches wide?, and 10 inches deep. 


Such large blocks do not give a good 
foothold as the joints are so far apart* 
Present practice in this country favors 
a block 6 to 12 inches long, 3 to 4 1/2 
inches wide, and 6 to 8 inches deep- 
A block wider than this does not give a 
good foothold. The objection to very 
short blocks is that there is a tendency 
for ruts to form, when there are sc many 
joints in the line of the traffic, unless 
great care is taken that joints are 
properly broken. On the other hand> the 



4 





145. 


objection to long blocks is that the 
joints are so far apart that horses are 
likely to slip sideways. In Liverpool, 
blocks 3 1/4 by 3 1/4 by 6 1/4 inches 
deep are used in some cases and 4 inch 
cubes in others. There, however, great 
care is taken to have the blocks of a 
uniform size and the faces smooth, a 
maximum variation of but a quarter of an 
inch being allowed. It is thus possible 
to break joints perfectly. 

Methods of laying blocks. The blocks 
are laid close together usually with 
continuous joints across the street. 
(Fig.94) Where stones of different 
widths are allowed it is necessary to 
have those in the same course of the 
same width, in order to keep close, 
straight joints. 

Sometimes the blocks are laid with the 
continuous course at an angle of 45 to 
60 degrees with the line of the street. 
(Fig.95) This arrangement is a little 
better than the former for traction, as 
wheels cross the joints diagonally and 
do not strike the edges of the blocks 
with as much force as when crossing at 
right angles. For the same reason the 






146 


wear 

add 

the 


of the blocks is less, 

> however» is not as good 
joints are at right angle 


Tiie foot- 
as when 
s to the 


line of traffic. 

A modification of the second method 
which has been used on steep grades, 
consists of two sets of diagonal courses 
each making an angle of 45 degrees with 
the line of the street, and meeting in 
the middle of the street.with their 
angle pointing up the ascent (Fig.96) 
With this arrangement, each continuous 
joint serves as a channel to conduct the 
surface water to the gutter. 

At the intersection of two streets it 


is customary to arrange the blocks as 
shown in Fig.97, to avoid continuous 
joints along the line of traffic* 

After the blocks are laid, the joints 
are usually filled with sand, and the 
blocks are thoroughly rammed three or 
four times with a heavy rammer weighing 
60 to 80 pounds. Sometimes the joints 
are filled with clean gravel and a ce¬ 
ment grout is poured in, filling all the 
spaces not occupied by the gravel* A 
still better filling, which has been 
used to quite an extent of late years in 


, 





147 . 

connection with the gravel, consists of 
a mixture of coal tar pitch and creosote 
oil* in the proportion of about fifty 
gallons of oil to one ton of pitch. The 
joints are first filled with the gravel 
and the blocks thoroughly rammed; then 
the coal tar mixture is poured into thorn 
while hot. 

A well constructed stone block pave¬ 
ment possesses most of the requisites 
of a good pavement. It offers little 
resistance to traction, gives a good 
foothold, is easily cleaned, is imper¬ 
vious to liquids when laid with coal tar 
joints, when on a concrete foundation is 
relaid as good as new if taken up in 
small patches, although difficult to 
take up. It is very noisy, is very 
expensive in construction, but costs 
very little for maintenance. 

Below are given specifications and 
descriptions of stone block pavements as 
laid in various cities. 


Extracts from specifications for gran¬ 
ite block pavement as laid in Providence 
R. I.(Fig.98). 

Quality and Dimensions of Stone Blocks, 

















































































148 . 

Tixe stone blocks for the pavement are 
to be of granite of- a durable, sound and 
uniform quality, not liable to wear 
slippery, each, measuring on the face or 
upper surface not less than- eight or 
more than ten inches in length,(the 
whole to average not more than nine 
inches), not less than three nor more 
than four inches in width, not less than 
seven nor more than eight inches in 
depth, to be split and dressed so as to 
form, when laid, end and side joints not 
exceeding one inch wide, top or bottom, 
with fair and true surfaces on top and 
bottom. They will be carefully inspect¬ 
ed after they are brought on the line of 
the work, and all blocks which in qual¬ 
ity or dimensions do not conform strict¬ 
ly to these specifications will be re¬ 
jected and must be immediately removed 
from the line of the work. 

Removal of Present Pavement and Prepa¬ 
ration of Road-bed* 

The present pavement, including all 
cross-walk stone rejected by said Engi¬ 
neer as unfit for further use, shall be 
taken up and delivered at the City Yard 
(so called) satisfactory to the City En- 











14:9 ♦ 


giaeer . 

The sub-soil or other matter shall 
then be excavated to such a depth as 
that when the surface has been thor¬ 
oughly compacted by ramming or rolling 
(as shall be done), it shall be left 

fourteen and one-half inches below the 

, 11 n $ 

grade of the ,top A of finished pavement, 
except the cross-walks at intersecting 
streets, where the excavation after ram¬ 
ming, etc., shall be thirteen inches 
below the top line of walk. Should 
tliere be any material of such a nature 
that it cannot be compacted satisfactory 
to the Engineer, such material shall be 

V. 

removed to a depth of not less than two 
feet, and the space filled with gravel 
or sand, thoroughly rammed. 

All holes and inequalities shall be 
likewise filled* 

No ploughing will be allowed in pre- 

/ 

paring the foundation. 

Concrete Foundation. 

Upon the foundation thus prepared, ex¬ 
cept under the cross-walks at intersect¬ 
ing streets, shall be.placed a bed of 
concrete five inches in depth. 


Sand Bed. 





150- 

On this concrete foundation shall be 

A 

laid, a bed of clean, sharp sand, per~ 
fectly free from moisture (made so by 

artificial heat if deemed necessary by 

/ 

the Engineer), not less than one and 
one-half inches thick, to the depth nec~ 
essary to bring the pavement to the 
proper grade when thoroughly rammed.' 

Laying the. Blocks and Filling of 
Joints. 

Upon this bed of sand the granite 
blocks will be laid. The blocks will be 
laid at right angles to the line of the 
street and intersecting streets* They 
will be placed as close as possible to 
one another, forming joints not more 
than one inch in width, top and bottom; 
each course to be formed of blocks of 
uniform width and depth, and so laid 
that all longitudinal joints shall be 
broken by a lap of at least two inches. 
When thus laid the blocks shall be im¬ 
mediately covered with clean, hard, dry 
gravel, artificially dried if deemed 
necessary by the Engineer. This gravel 
shall be free from sand, it shall be 
such as has passed through a sieve of 
three-quarters of an inch mesh and re~ 





151. 

tained by a quarter inch mesh. It shall 
be brushed into the joints. The blocks 
are then to be carefully rammed. More 
gravel shall then be brushed in to fill 
the joints, the blocks again carefully 
rammed; the process to be repeated until 
the joints are full* and the blocks 
brought to an unyielding bearing, with 
uniform surface> true to the crown of 
the roadway as given by the Engineer. 

There will then be poured into the 
joints, in a boiling state, an asphaltum 
mixture, composed of coal-tar pitch and 
creosote oil, in the proportions of fif¬ 
ty gallons of oil to one ton of pitch; 
these are to be melted together in iron 
boilers holding not less than twenty- 
five hundred pounds. It will be poured 
into the joints of the pavement until 
the sand beneath and the gravel between 
the blocks will absorb no more and the 
joints are filled flush with the upper 
surface of the pavement. 

Material to be kept dry. 

The stone for the pavement, the sand 
for the bed, and the gravel for the 
ioints shall each and severally be laid 
only when dry and free from moisture. 






152. 


After being laid, the contractor shall 
protect them from the weather until the 
joints have been filled with said as* 
phaltum mixture, and should they become 
moist from any cause before filling the 
joints with said mixture, the contractor 
shall at his own expense remove that 
portion of the work so moistened and re¬ 
place and complete the same with dry 
mat erials » 

The contractor shall in each and every 
case so protect the work when unfinished 
as to prevent water from entering be¬ 
tween the stone blocks and the concrete 
foundation. 

The blocks to be laid next to the 
railroad stringers shall be selected as 
free from bunches as possible, and laid 
as close against the timber as can be 
done. 

The contractor will, at his own ex¬ 
pense, dress or trim off all bunches 
from the curb-stone which may in any way 
prevent the proper laying of the stone 
blocks or forming the joint of the same. 

Concrete. 

The concrete shall be composed of one 
part of fresh ground American hydraulic 



153 . 

cement? of the best quality. two parts 
of clean? sharp sand? and six parts of 
broken or screened stone. 

All cement furnished by the contractor 
will be subject to inspection and tost 
before it is used* and shall when mixed 
be capable of resisting a tensile strain 
of fifty pounds per square inch? after 
thirty minutes exposure in air and v 
twenty.-four hours immersion in water? 

The contractor will be required to 
furnish the Engineer or Inspector full 
facilities for examining and testing all 
cement to be used? and the Engineer is 
to decide upon the chareater and severi¬ 
ty of the test to be applied; and all 

cement* which in his opinion is of irn- 

% 

proper or inferior quality? must be im¬ 
mediately removed from the work. When 
cement is accepted? if not immediately 
used? it must be protected from the 
weather and kept dry, and in no case 
will it be allowed to be placed upon the 
ground without blocking under the bar* 

'rels. 

The broken or screened stone to be 
sound and solid? free from dust and dirt 
and of a si so not larger in any dimen- 






154 . 


sion than will pass through a two.-inch 
ring. 

The cement and sand is to be made into 
mortar in boxes if required, and the 
broken or screened stone, which shall 
be sprinkled so as to wet the surface of 
the stone, shall then be added and the 
whole shall then be quickly and thor¬ 
oughly mixed until every stone is coated 


with mortar. 

r 

The concrete thus made shall then be 
placed in proper position and there 
rammed until it is thoroughly compacted 
and has a clear mortar surface, which 
surface, when left, shall be nine and 


one-**half inches below the grade of the 
top of the finished pavement* 

The surface shall be kept wet > if -re¬ 
quired, until covered with sand. At 
least tiiirty™six hours shall be allowed 
for the concrete to set before the pave.* 
merit is laid When connection is to be 
made with any layer, set or partially 
set, the edge of such layer must be- 
broken clown and shall be free from dirt 
and properly wet so as to make the joint 


fresh and close 

No driving on the concrete bed will be 



155 . 


allowed. The sand is to be placed on 
the concrete from wheel-barrows. 

No allowance in measurement will be 
made for any concrete which may be driv 
en into the earth by ramming below the 
grades given for the sub-foundation. 


Specifications for granite block pave¬ 
ment as laid in Chicago, Ill. (Fig.99). 

Grading. Before paving, the street 
shall be graded to conform to stakes or 
profiles, to be given by the Engineer in 
charge and thoroughly flooded, rammed 
and rolled to give it a solid bed. 

Foundation For Stone Pavement. Upon 
the bed thus formed and compacted shall 
be spread a layer of clean, broken lime¬ 
stone, entirely free from dust, dirt or 
other foreign substance, not less than 
six (6**) inches in depth, after being 
thoroughly rolled. Said stone shall be 
practically uniform in quality, of an¬ 
gular fragments, having rough faces ob¬ 
tained by fracture, and measuring not 
more than two and one-half (2 1/2) inch¬ 
es in their largest dimensions, nor less 
than one (1) inch ; in about equal propor¬ 
tions. Upon this a bed of limestone 



156 . 

screenings. or of fine, clean bank grav¬ 
el; containing no pebbles of larger di¬ 
mensions than one and one-half (1 1/2) 
inches, shall be spread in such quantity 
that when thoroughly flooded it shall 
completely fill the interstices of the 
stone and leave besides one (1) inch in 
depth over the whole surface of the 
stone» after rollihg. 

The stone arid gravel shall be flooded 
with water, and thoroughly rolled with a 
steam roller, weighing not less tnan 
fifteen (15) tons, until the entire mass 
is brought to a true and uniform surface 
and thoroughly compacted*to the satis¬ 
faction of the Commissioner of Public 
Works or his representative. Stone and 
gravel together to have a thickness of 
not less than seven (?) inches after 
having been thoroughly rolled, and the 
surface thereof to be from eight to nine 
(8-9) inches below the top of the fin¬ 
ished pavement. Over this shall be 
evenly spread a bed of clean, fine.- 
sharp sand, thoroughly dry. not less 
than two (2) inches nor more than three 
(3) inches in thickness, to serve as a 
bed for the granite blocks, which shall 




15? . 

be laid directly upon and imbeded in it. 

Granite Blocks, The pavement to con¬ 
sist of syenite or granite blocks or 
stone, equal in quality to standard, 
samples in the office of the Commission¬ 
er of Public Works, of a uniform grain 
and texture, without lamination or 
stratif ication i and fx^ee from excess of 
mica or feldspar. 

It is expx'essly understood that gran¬ 
ite, wearing I'ougliXy, and therefore af¬ 
fording better foothold for horses, will 
be considered preferable to the hardest. 
Hard basaltic stone, which will take a 

smooth polish under traffic, shall not he 

/ 

used. Soft or weatherworn stones, ob¬ 
tained from the surface of the quarry, 
will not be accepted. The stone blocks 
must be so quarried cr dressed as to 
present substantially rectangular faces, 
with practically straight edges on top, 
bottom and sides, and all blocks whose 
faces varv more than half {1/2} an inch 
from a rectangular shape will be reject*- 

ed. The sides and ends of the blocks 

\ 

must also be so quarried or dressed that 
they will make close-fitting Joints. 
Blocks having projections or knobs larg«* 







153- 

er than half (1/2) an inch will be re¬ 
jected* unless so dressed that said pro¬ 
jections or knobs will be within the 
limits prescribed. The dimensions of 
the stone will be from three and one 
half to four (5 1/2 4} inches wide, 

six to seven (6 * 7} inches deep, and 
not less than six (6) nor more than ten 
(10) inches long. Each stone shall have 
even top and bottom beds. 

The blocks will be carefully inspected 
after they are brought on the line of 
the work,and all blocks or other materi¬ 
al, which in quality or dimensions do not 
strictly conform to these specifications / 
or which may be otherwise defective, 
shall be rejected, and must be immedi¬ 
ately removed from the line of the work 

v 

by the contractor. The contractor will 
be required to furnish such laborers as 
may be necessary to aid the inspector in 
the examination and culling of the stone 
and other material, and in case the con¬ 
tractor shall neglect so to do> such 
laborers as in the opinion of the Com- 1 
missioner of Public Works may be neces¬ 
sary* will be employed, and the expense 
incurred shall be deducted from any non- 





159 . 


ey then due , or which, may thereafter foe'" 
come due to the contractor. 

The blocks must foe laid in uniform 
courses across the street/ and spaces 

between the sides or ends of the blocks> 

* 

when in place, shall in no case foe less 
than one-'-quarter (1/4) of an inch nor 
exceed five-eighths (5/8) of an inch. 

The stone blocks shall foe so laid as to 
break joints in alternate courses, each 
course, as far as practicable, to foe of 
uniform depth and width, and so laid 
that all longitudinal joints shall foe 
broken by a lap of at least two and one* 
half (2 1/2) inches. 

When thus laid the pavement shall iui** 

✓ 

mediately foe covered with clean*screened, 
dry (roofing) gravel, free from, sand or 
loam, or pebbles smaller than one-six¬ 
teenth (1^16) of an inch, or larger than 
one-*half (1/2) an inch in size, in prop¬ 
er quantities, and raked until all the 
-joints become filled therewith, and the 

J 

blocks then rammed with a seventy-five 
(75) pound rammer, the point of which 
shall be three and one-half (3 1/2) 
inches in diameter, by competent and ex¬ 
perienced workmen, to a firm, unyielding 









































\ 






160 . 


bed. and uniform surface to proper 
grade. In the above described ramming 
each stone should be struck two full 
blows; a light rammer shall then.be used 
to bring the pavement to a perfectly 
uniform surface. 

Aspace of three-fourths (3/4) of an 
Inch shall be left between the top of 
the gravel in the interstices and the 
top of the pavement, which will be 
filled full with a hot asphaltic mixture 

* 

This mixture must be poured into the 
joints of the blocks at a temperature of 
300 degrees Fahrenheit until the sand 
beneath and the gravel between them 
will absorb no more, and the joints are 
filled flush with the upper surface of 
the pavement. In no case shall be used 
for this purpose less than two and one- 
half (2 1/2) gallons per square yard of 
paving . 

Said asphaltic mixture shall be com¬ 
posed of coal tar, pitch made from coal 
tar, gas tar and creosote oil, in the 
proportion of one (1) cwt. of pitch to 
four (4) gallons of tar and one (l)gal- 
lon of creosote, proportions which are 
varied somewhat, according to the quali- 






161 . 

ty of the pitch used. The materials 
composing the mixture must he melted 
together and boiled for from one (1) to 
two (2) hours in a boiler adapted to the 
purpose, and must be tempered to the 
satisfaction of the engineer in charge 
before it is poured into the joints; and 
any of the cement which does not flow 

|, 

freely at the proper temperature shall 
be rejected and removed from the work. 

Another paving cement may be obtained 
from direct distillation of coal tar, 
and of the consistency ordinarily num¬ 
bered between five (5) and six (6) at 
the manufactory. 

The Commissioner of Public Works re¬ 
serves the right to decide which of the 
two named compositions shall be used. 

The object of asphaltic jointing is to 
make the paving impervious to moisture; 
to create a bond with a degree of elas¬ 
ticity sufficient to prevent it from 
cracking and to prevent formation of mud 
thereby facilitating the cleaning of the 
pav ement. 

It is therefore expressly understood, 
that the Commissioner of Public Works 
will permit only the very best asphaltic 






































III 

■ 




* 









. 


























162 , 

mixture known to be used for the above 
purpose. 

After the aforesaid treatment the en^ 
tire surface of the street shall be cov-- 
ered with a light coating of dry fine 
gravel , containing no pebbles larger 
than three-quarters (3/4:) of an inch, 
for the purpose of consolidating the 

same with the asphaltic jointing. 

Extracts from Specifications for 
Dressed Block Medina Sand-stone Pavement 
as laid in Buffalo, k T . Y. 

Grading.*-- The street to be graded to 
such grades, sub-grades and cross-sec¬ 
tions as the Engineer shall direct; the 
sub-grade of the roadway to conform to 
the proper crown of the pavement. All 
surplus material to belong to, and must 
be disposed of > by the contractor; any 

9 

deficiency of earth to he supplied hy 
him. Soft or spongy places, not afford¬ 
ing a firm foundation, will he dug out 
and refilled with good earth, well 
rammed, and the entire roadbed will be 
thoroughly rolled with a steam roller 
weighing not less than five tons. 

Foundation.--- Upon the roadbed thus 





165. 

prepared will be laid a bed of hydraulic 
cement concrete, six inches in thick-' 
ness, to be made as follows: 

One measure of Buffalo, or equally as 
good cement, equal to the best quality 
of freshly-burned Rosendale cement, and 
two of clean, sharp sand will be thor- 

oughly mixed, dry, and then made into a 

% !• 

mortar, with the least possible amount 
of water; broken stone, thoroughly 
cleaned from dirt, drenched with'water, 
but containing no loose water in the 
heap, will then be incorporated immedi¬ 
ately with the mortar in such quantities 
as will give a surplus of mortar when 
rammed. This proportion, when ascer¬ 
tained, will be regulated by measure. 
Each batch of concrete will be thorough¬ 
ly mixed. It will then be spread, and 
at once thoroughly compacted by ramming 
until free mortar appears upon the sur¬ 
face. The whole operation of mixing and 
laying each batch will be performed as 
expeditiously as possible. The upper 
surface will be made exactly parallel 
with the surface of the pavement to be 

laid. 

Upon this concrete base will be placed 






















' 















164 * 


a layer of sand three inches in depth 
and of a quality to he approved by the 
Engineer, as a cushion upon which will 
be placed the paving blocks. 

The space between the curbs must be 
paved with the best quality of dressed 
block Medina sand-stone, to be approved 
by the Engineer, and the blocks shall be 
not less than three (3) nor more than 
four and one-half (4 1/2) inches thick, 
and not less than six (6) nor more than 
seven (7) inches deep, and from seven 
(7) to twelve (12) inches long. The 
surface of the stones to have parallel 
sides and ends with right-angle joints, 
and so prepared that when in place and 
resting against the adjoining block the 
joints, in their widest parts, shall not 
exceed one.-half (1/2) inch in width for 
a distance of at least three and one- 
half (3 1/2) inches from the top down, 
and set tight together at side and end 
joints; stones are to be split or broken 
with the top surface hammer cut or 
9 * axed 9 8 off when necessary to render 
them smooth; sides and ends to receive 
similar treatment when necessary to se¬ 
cure the half (1/2) inch joints as spec- 

























165 . 


ified; blocks are to be set tight to¬ 
gether in uniform rows, breaking joints 

at least two (2) inches and resting 

* ' 

against blocks in the same and adjoin¬ 
ing course ;those.of uniform thickness 
to be placed together in the same row, 
set upon three ( 3 ) inches of 3and;blocks 
of the least depth allowed, not to be 
*'bolstered up* 8 , no gravel or sand to 
be placed on top as blocks are laid. 
Blocks to be set perpendicular to the 
grade, and in right angle courses across 
the street, except at street intersect 
tions, where the courses are to be set 
at such angle as the Engineer shall di¬ 
rect. The pavement shall be subject to 
the following treatment by the contract¬ 
or, and in such order and to such extent 
as the Engineer shall direct. 


Ramming.—' The paving to be rammed as 
may be directed, with a paver's rammer, 
weighing not less than ninety pounds. 

No iron of any kind being allowed on its 
lower face to come in contact with the 
paving. The pavement to be surfaced up 
by using a long straight-edge, and when 
complete to conform to the true grade 
and crown of the roadway, as directed by 





















166 . 


the Engineer* 

Concrete Filling.--- The joints or 
spaces "between the blocks not less than 
five inches in depth, to be filled with 
a concrete composition composed of not 
less than ten (10) per cent, of refined 
Trinidad Asphalt, mixed with coal tar 
cement distilled at a temperature of not 
less than 600 degrees* Fah.,and the 
whole mixed with such proportion of 
still-wax as not to soften or become 
brittle under heat or cold. The compo¬ 
sition shall be heated and used at a 
temperature of not less than 300 degrees 
Fah..,to be determined by a proper guage 
or indicator placed upon the tank used 
in the street; extra material arid care 
shall be used at the gutters in filling 
all joints, in both paving, curbing and 
around catch-basins, or other recepta^ 
cles, to effectually prevent the leakage 
of water into the sub-roadway; all 
joints to be Completely filled to the 
top before adding top-dressing. 

The concrete not to be used until the 
blocks are completely.dry. 

Top-dressing *--- The surface of the 
paving, when completed as above, shall 






* 







167 . 

be covered with a half inch top-dressing 
of clean, coarse sand or gravel of 
approved quality. 


Stone Block* Pavements in Liverpool,Eng 

First Class Streets.(Fig.100) 

The foundation consists of a layer of 
Portland cement concrete six inches 
thick. This is allowed to set for ten 
days before paving is begun upon it. 

On this foundation is spread a layer 
of fine gravel not over one half inch 
in thickness. 

The paving blocks or 9 ’sets* ; are of 
granite and are 5 1/4 by 5 1/4 by 6 1/4 
inches deep. These are laid as close 
together as possible, and the joints are 
then filled with clean gravel. The 
stones are then rammed and more gravel 
added, the operation being repeated as 
long as the gravel settles. A hot mix¬ 
ture of coal tar pitch and creosote oil 
is then poured into the joints, and the 
entire surface is covered with one~half 
inch of gravel. 

Second Class Streets. 

The foundation consists of a six inch 
layer of cement concrete, or sometimes 



* 





168 . 


bituminous concrete. 

The paving blocks are of granite, 
either 4 inch cubes> or 3 inches wide, 

5 to 7 inches long, and 5 to 6 1/4 inch** 
es deep. 

Third Class Streets.(Fig.101) 

The foundation consists of a 10 inch 
pavement of rough stones set on edge, 
covered with a layer of gravel. 

The paving blocks are 4 inch cubes of 
granite- 

9. Wood Block Pavements. 

Pavements formed of blocks of wood 
have been used in Russia for hundreds of 
years. The first wood pavement was laid 
in London in 1839. In the United States 
the first wood pavements were laid in 
Hew York and Philadelphia about 1835 * 

Any of the forms of foundation used 
for a stone block pavement may be used 
for a wood block pavement. Another 
form, which is the most common one in 
this country, consists of one or two 
layers of boaras upon a bed of sand, the 

blocks resting directly upon the boards. 

Blocks of various shapes have been 
used- The first pavements laid in this 

















. 
















' 





169 . 


country and in England were formed of 
hexagpnal blocks, laid with the fibres 
of the wood upright. Those laid in New 
York were 6 inches across and 8 inches 
deep. This form was known in England as 
the Stead pavement, from the name of the 
first constructor of wood pavements in 
that country. The edges of the block 
were usually champfered to give a foot¬ 
hold for horses.{Fig.102} 

One of the earliest forms used in New 
York consisted of blocks 6 inches square 
and 12 Inches deep. 

An old form of pavement, known as 
Carey 8 s, that was used to some extent in 
England, was composed of blocks of wood 
6 or 7 inches wide, 12 to 14 inches long 
and 8 inches deep. The sides and ends 
of the blocks were alternately concave 
and convex to give support to each other 
A later form of this pavement had only 
the ends of the blocks concave and con¬ 
vex, and the size was decreased to 4 
Inches wide, 9 inches long, and 6 inches 
deep .( Fig • 103 ) 

Another wood pavement that was used to 
some extent in England was that known as 
Clark’s. The shape and method of manu- 










' 





































170. 

featuring the blocks, which were espec¬ 
ially designed to give a good foothold, 
is shown in Fig.104. 

De Lisle's wood pavement consisted of 
blocks whose top and bottom surfaces 
were cut diagonally to the direction of 
the grain. Holes were made in the side 
of each block to receive dowels used for 
the purpose of holding the blocks in 
place. 

Wood paving blocks, as now laid, are 
usually from 6 to 12 inches long, 3 to 
4 inches wide, and 6 inches deep. 

In the western part of the United 
States, a wood pavement, composed of 
round cedar blocks from 4 to 8 inches in 
diameter, and about 6 inches deep, is 
extensively used- These blocks are, for 
the most part, simply sections of the 
trunk of the tree with the bark removed* 
Various kinds of wood are used for 
paving blocks- In England, the Swedish 
yellow deal and the pitch pine are con¬ 
sidered as among the best materials- In 
the United States, besides cedar, white 
pine has been used to some extent* 

To prevent premature decay the blocks 
are sometimes treated by one of the wood 











171. 


preserving processes. This has been 
done in London? where the oreosoting 
process has been used* It is claimed by 
some that the blocks wear less rapidly 
when so treated? but it is questionable 
whether the advantage gained Is suffi¬ 
cient to pay for the extra expense in¬ 
curred. Where such processes are used? 
the blocks should be inspected before 
being treated? as it is impossible to do 
so satisfactorily afterwards. In this 
country? the blocks are usually laid In 
their natural state. 

The removal of the sap wood? which is 
the first to decay? will lengthen the 
life of a paving block. In some of the 
western cities of the United States, 
cedar blocks, from which the outer or 
sap wood ring has been removed, are be¬ 
ing used. The pavements laid with these 

blocks are said to remain in good condi- 

, 

tion much longer than those laid with 
blocks from which the bark only has been 
r emov ed. 

The pavement of round blocks is laid 
as is shown in Fig• J £°| 

The rectangular blocks are laid in 
continuous courses running across the 







172. 

street, or sometimes diagonally, as with, 
the stone block pavement. At street 
intersections the arrangement shown in 
Fig-97 should be used. 

The blocks are laid with close longi¬ 
tudinal joints, and a spaceshould be 
left next the curbing to allow for the 
expansion of the wood. This should be 
an inch or two wide according to the 
widthof the street, and should be filled 
with sand• 

The transverse joints are usually left 
open from one-half to one inch. Some¬ 
times a batten is placed between the 
rows to keep them the necessary distance 
apart. In London, iron studs are some¬ 
times driven into the sides of the 
blocks and allowed to project a short 
distance, thus keeping the joint the re¬ 
quired width•(Fig.105) 

The joints may be filled with sand, 
cement grouting, or gravel and coal tar 
composition. 

The surface should always be covered 
with&layer of sand or gravel which is 
rolled into the fibres of the block by 
the traffic• 

• The life of a wood pavement will vary 





























■ 






173 . 


with the character of the foundation, 
kind of wood used, and the class of 
traffic which passes over it* In the 
western cities of the United States, the 
cedar block pavement has an average life 
of six to eight years, but under heavy 
traffic becomes very rough after two or 
three years• 

In London wood pavements have been 
used on streets with a traffic of 400 
tons per day per foot of width, 5Q$» 
greater than that on Broadway, Hew York, 
and about 1G0$ greater than that on Dev¬ 
onshire Street, Boston,and have lasted 
from six to eight years* The depth of 
the annual wear of the blocks varied on 
different pavements from .19 to .46 of 
an.inch. Although the blocks were not 
worn down in the extreme case to much 
less than one^half their depth, the 
pavements became uneven after a period 
of six or eight years and required re¬ 
newing * 

A wood pavement, if properly con¬ 
structed and maintained, posesses most 
of the requisites of a good pavement - 
It is v^ry favorable for traction. It 

gives a good foothold for horses on 














* 

. 





174. 


grades not exceeding 1 in 20* In 
frosty weather it is likely to become 
slippery, but this can be remedied by 
covering it with, a layer of sand or fine 
gravel to insure a good foothold at such 
times* When made with impervious joints 
it is clean if proper attention is paid 
to washing and sweeping. If proper at¬ 
tention is not paid to washing and 
sweeping, wood pavement will become very 
filthy ahd be objectionable from a hy¬ 
gienic standpoint. When laid on a con¬ 
crete base it can be relaid in small 
patches without danger of settling. It 
is less expensive than stone in first 
cost,but after the first two or three 
years costs more for maintenance. 

Following are descriptions of some 
wood pavements which have been used 
quite extensively* 

. -i yn. pi £bc* wz> a* try* -- qk arsa MtcSc mc* sk 1 ot' smc* 4-*® sw <na i®fc* ***" ■£** 

Nicholson Wood Pavement .( Fig . 106 ) 

Th© foundation consists of a thin lay¬ 
er of sand, upon which are laid boards 
one inch thick, lengthwise of the street 
their ends resting on other boards, laid 
transversely. The flooring boards are 
covered on both sides with hot coal tar- 





175 - 

The blocks are of yellow or white pine 
3 or 4 inches wide, 6 to 14 inches long, 
and 6 inches deep, the fibres of the 
wood being vertical. The lower part of 

the blocks is dipped in coal tar, and 
they are laid end to end in continuous 
courses across the street. 

The transverse joints are three-* 
fourths of an inch wide, battens three- 
fourths of an inch by one inch being 
laid between the rows of blocks and 
nailed to the blocks and flooring. The 
joints above the battens are then filled 
with a mixture of clean gravel and coal 
tar thoroughly rammed in. 

The surface of the pavement is then 
coated with hot coal tar and about an 
inch of sand and gravel spread over it. 


Stowe Wood Pavement.(Fig.107) 

In the Stowe pavement, the blocks rest 
upon a bed of sand or gravel 4 to 6 
inches thick, which has been thoroughly 
compacted. 

They are laid in courses the same as 
tlie Nicholson, and are separated by a 
continuous row of wooden wedges, of the 
same height as the blocks. These wedges 







. 












176 . 

are set with their tops at the level of 
the tops of the blocks . The pavement is 
then well rammed, and the wedges are 
driven down about three inches into the 
sand * 

The joints above the wedges are then 
filled with a mixture of coal tar and 
gravel, and the surface treated as with 
the Nicholson. 


Henson 5 s Wood Pavement.(Fig.108) 

In this pavement the foundation con¬ 
sists of a layer of concrete on which a 
strip of roofing felt is placed to give 
elasticity to the pavement. The courses 
of blocks are also separated by a simi¬ 
lar strip of felt. 

Originally, a V>shaped groove was cut 
along the blocks of every fourth course 
to give foothold, but this was dispensed 
with later as unnecessary. 



Lloyd * s Patent-Keyed Wood Pavement. 

In this system, the blocks, which aro 
of pine, are grooved on each side. They 
are laid upon a.concrete foundation, and 
the Portland cement grout, which is 
poured into the joints, fills the 










. 



















177 


grooves and forms a key to hold the 
blocks in position. 


The Asphaltic Wood Pavement. 

A layer of concrete, 6 to 9 inches 
thick is first laid. On this is laid a 
half inch coat of so-called asphalt, 
which is simply a coal tar composition. 
On this are set blocks of Baltic fir, 3 
inches wide, 8 or 9 inches long, and 5 
inches deep, with close longitudinal 

'i g , h 

joints and one-half inch transverse 
joints. The joints are then filled for 
a depth of 2 inches with heated coal tar 
and the remaining depth is filled with 
cement grout. 

The Henson, Lloyd, and Asphaltic wood 
pavements are English pavements, and 

have been used quite extensively in Lon- 

\ 

don. 

Extracts from Specifications for Cedar 
Block Paving as laid in Chicago, Ill. 
(Fig.109 ) 

Grading.- Before paving the street 

shall be graded to conform to stakes or 
profiles to be given by the Engineer in 
charge, and thoroughly flooded, rammed 















• • 



. 

























178. 


and rolled to give it a solid bed- 

Paving.--- 1st. The pavement shall not 
be laid on any street until the material 
thereof shall have been made firm and 
unyielding* and the contractor shall as¬ 
sume all the responsibility therefor. 

2d- A bed of clean lake shore sand* 
not less than three (3**5 inches in 
depth, shall be smoothly and evenly 
spread over the surface o& the street, 
and compactly rammed and rolled down. 

3d. A foundation of two (2 , ~ l ) inch 
sound, common hemlock plank* to be laid 
lengthwise of the street close together, 
upon one (1 * ) inch by eight ( 8 § y ) inch 
pine stringers under the ends and cen¬ 
ters. Stringers to be firmly bedded in 
the sand* 

4th. Upon said foundation live cedar 
blocks, free from bark and perfectly 
sound, net less than four (4 i4 ) inches 
nor more than eight (8 ,G ) inches in di¬ 
ameter and six (6 8S ) inches in length* 
shall be placed on end, close laid, 
resting properly on their bases and well 

driven together. All blocks more than 
eight (8 1 1 ) inches in diameter shall be 
split and the corners cut sufficiently. 





1 






















































. if i 

• ' 

































179. 

to make good joints with adjacent blocks 

No split blocks of less than three 
(3 s4 ) inches in thickness will be al¬ 
lowed . 

All knots or excrescences must be cut 
off to make the blocks practically uni¬ 
form in diameter throughout their length 

No interstice between the blocks to be 
more than one and one-half (1 1/2**) 
inches nor less than three-quarters 
(3/4 0? ) of an inch. 

No square holes will be allowed* nor 
must two split sides come together. 

The surface of the| pavement must be 
true and uniform. 

In case any loose or defective blocks 
shall be found in the pavement* they 
shall be removed and replaced by perfect 
blocks of proper size* and so much of 
the pavement as may be necessary to make 
the work perfect shall be taken up and 
relaid at the expense of the contractor. 

The blocks shall be carefully inspect¬ 
ed after they are brought on the line of 
the work* and all blocks or other mate¬ 
rial which, in quality or dimensions, 
do not strictly conform to these speci¬ 
fications, or which may be otherwise de~ 















4 

- 




180 . 

fective, shall be rejected, and must be 
immediately removed from the line of the 
work by the contractor. The contractor 
shall be required, to furnish such labor* 
ers as may be necessary to aid the in¬ 
spector in the examination ana culling 
of the blocks and other material, and in 
case the contractor shall refuse ‘or neg¬ 
lect so to do, such laborers as in the 
opinion of the Commissioner of Public 
Works may be necessary will be employed, 
and the expense incurred shall be de¬ 
ducted from any money then due, or which 
may thereafter become due the contractor 
5th- The spaces between the blocks to 
be filled with clean? screened, dry,lake 
shore gravel, of one.-fourth ( 1/4 * 1 ) to 
one (1 * * ) inch in size, the proportion 
of said gravel to be such as to com¬ 
pletely fill all the interstices and 
shall be thoroughly rammed with proper- 
tools, and by competent and experienced 
help, and again filled with the same 
kind of gravel and again thoroughly 

rammed * 

In the above described ramming each 
interstice must be struck three full 
blows and driven down well - 


Two compe 































181 . 

tent rammers must be constantly employed 
after each paver. No teams will be al¬ 
lowed on the pavement before it is prop¬ 
erly rammed. 

After ramming the pavement will be 
covered with hot composition) not loss 
than one and one.-hal f (1 1/2) gallons 
per square yard> and the spaces between 
the blocks shall be filled with the same 
kind of gravel flush with the top of the 
blocks. The tar will be distributed 

with a three (35 gallon kettle, the work 
to be done in sections as the Commission 
er of Public Works, or his r©presenta- 
t ive. may direct« 

6th. After which clean, dry, lake 
.shore gravel, about one-fourth (1/4**) 
inch in size, shall be spread over the 
street in such quantity that when swept 
all the interstices between the blocks 
will be thoroughly filled; when the 
travel is nut on the second and third 

time there must "be enough space left be¬ 
tween the portions rammed once or twice 
from the ether portions to enable the 
inspector to see that every part of the 
street is thoroughly rammed. 

7th- The whole surface shall be swept 

















■ 

. , 

. 










182« 

over and covered with hot composition, 
not less than one-half (1/2) gallon per 
square yard, and immediately covered 
with dry roofing gravel, or gravel 
screened from that used to fill the 
spaces between the blocks, said covering 
to be not less than one (l ee ) inch thick 
All gravel used here must be lake shore 
gravel, entirely free from sand or peb¬ 
bles over one~half (l/2 l!8 ) inch in size, 
and dried and heated enough to prevent 
the chilling of the composition. 

The graveling and tarring must be com* 
yleted each day to within fifteen (15 6 ) 
feet of the end of the paving, and the 
top dressing to within fifty (50 s ) feet. 
If the gravel and pavement become wet 
before the tarring is completed the same 
may be ordered taken up by the Commis¬ 
sioner of Public Works. 

All composition used to be equal to 
Barrett & Arnala 0 s best paving composi¬ 
tion, distilled at 40G degrees Fahren- 1 
heit, and used at a temperature of not 
less than 280 degrees Fahrenheit. All 
gravel used,to be lake shore, and dried 
and heated enough to prevent the chill¬ 
ing of the composition. 











































186 . 

Figs.110 and 111 show two methods of 
laying cedar block pavements, v/hich have 
been used to some extent in Duluth,Minn, 
and other western cities» 

In the first* a 6 inch layer of con¬ 
crete is used as a foundation and the 
blocks are set directly on this. 

In the second, the foundation consists 
of a Telford pavement, 8 inches thick, 
covered with a 2 inch layer of broken 
stone. Over this is spread 1 inch of 
sand, upon which is laid a flooring of 
1 inch boards to receive the blocks. 


10. Brick Pavements. 

Hard burned or vitrified bricks are 
coming into quite extensive use as a 
paving material. In Holland brick pave¬ 
ments have been in use for over a hun¬ 
dred years* In the United States the 
first brick pavement was laid in Charles 
ton, W-Va. less than twenty years ago. 

Brick pavements may be laid on any of 
the forms of foundation used for stone 
and wood pavements. 

A verr common form consists of a layer 
of sand or gravel on which is laid a 
course of bricks on their side* On this 


/ 







184 . 

is spread a thin layer of sand as a bed 
for the pavement brick. The lower layer 
of brick need not be of as good a quail* 
ty as the paving brick, but should, how¬ 
ever, be of hard burned brick that will 
not be materially injured by the action 
of frost. 

The size of the bricks varies somewhat 
in different cities, but 8 by 4 by 2 1/4 
inches is not uncommon. They are usual* 
ly made with square edges, but sometimes 
with rounded or beveled edges to give 
better foothold. Some manufacturers 
make a brick with the lower part thicker 
than the top so as to leave open joints 
at the surface of the pavement. Bricks 
are sometimes made with grooves on the 
sides and ends to receive the filling 
which is poured into the joints, thus 
allowing it to flow freely around the 
bricks. 

The usual method of laying the bricks 
is in transverse courses with broken 
longitudinal joints. They may, however, 
be laid in any of the forms in which 
stone blocks are laid. The herring-bone 
method is sometimes used. (Fig.115) 

They are almost always laid in close 







I 1 . • 
















• . 

. 


. 









135 . 

contact > but the roughness of the brides 
leaves a slightly open joint which is 
filled with sand, cement grout, or coal 
tar composition. The surface is covered 
with a thin layer of sand. 

A good brick pavement possesses most 
of the requisites of a good pavement. 

It is very favorable for traction. It 
gives a good foothold, not usually be¬ 
coming slippery with wear. ¥/hen laid 
with coal tar or cement joints it is 
very clean and impervious to liquids. 
When the joints are filled with sand it 
is far cleaner than stone or wood block 
pavement under the same conditions, as 
the joints are much narrower and hence 
retain less mud and filth * It is some¬ 
what noisy, slightly more so than wood, 
but far less than granite blocks. It 
can be relaid as good as new, if on a 
concrete foundation, when taken up to 
give access to pipes. It is economical 
in first cost when the bricks do not 
have to be brought from a distance, and 
is not expensive to keep in repair if 
made of a uniform quality of brick. It 
has been found very difficult, however, 
to obtain a uniform quality of brick, 



















. 


- 

pi 










186 . 


and this has been the greatest objection 
to this kind of pavement* 

Below are given extracts from specific 
cations for brick, pavements as laid in 
various cities - 


Extracts from Specifications for Brick 
Pavements > Memphis,Tenn- ( Fig.112) 

Concrete.,.--- Upon the sub.-grade shall 
be spread the concrete foundation, com*’ 
posed of hard limestone, broken or 
crushed, to pass a two-inch ring,the 
same to be free of all dirt, trash,etc., 
clean, sharp sand mixed with fine gravel, 
and the best fresh Louisville cement,in 
the following proportions, vis*: One 
measure of cement and two of sand, thor¬ 
oughly mixed, dry, and then made into 
mortar, with the least possible amount 
of water, and into this will be put the 
macadam, which shall first be well wet, 
and the whole worked into a concrete in 
such quantities as will produce a sur¬ 
plus of free mortar when well rammed. 
This proportion, when ascertained, will 
be regulated by measure. Each total of 
concrete will be thoroughly mixed, in 
suitable boxes, with hoes and shovels. 







187. 

i 

the mortar always to be mixed fresh be¬ 
fore being applied to the broken stone. 
It will then be spread and at once thor- 
oughly compacted by ramming with heavy 
cast-iron rammers, until free mortar ap¬ 
pears on the surface; the whole opera¬ 
tion shall be done as expeditiously as 
possible. The upper surface will be 
made exactly parallel with the surface 
of the pavement to be laid, by floating 
over the surface with cement and the 
straight edge. The depth of concrete 
consolidated, when finished, shall not 
be less than nine (9) inches. No walk¬ 
ing or driving shall be permitted on the 
concrete when it is setting, and it 
shall be allowed to set for three (3) 
days before any pavement is laid on it. 

Pavement.--- On the concrete founda¬ 
tion thus prepared, a bed of clean, 
sharp sand, free from moisture, two (2) 
inches deep,shall be laid. The paving 
bricks to be used shall be such as shall 
be satisfactory and acceptable to the 
Engineer, and shall conform strictly to 
the samples offered by the contractor 
and accepted by the Engineer and the 
Council* The sand must be brought to a 
































































- 1 ■ 







188 . 


true and perfect surface and made zo 
conform strictly to the grade pegs set 
by the Engineer, by means of a drag 
straight edge, seven (7) feet long, 
drawn over the surface, and resting on 
two pieces of scantling 2x4-16 feet long, 
having planed surfaces. The top surface 
of the sand bed being flush with the 
grade pegs. Upon tills bed of sand, the 
paving bricks are to be laid on edge, at 
right angles to the line of curbs, in 
parallel lines, in as close contact as 
possible on sides and ends; the joints 
broken one with another, by starting .at 
curb lines with half bricks, in alter* 
nate rows, so as to break the joints. 
llo half or broken brick shall be laid 
except at the curb lines, in order to 
make closures, but the brick must be 
laid whole throughout, except as above 
named . 

As the pavement is laid over thirty or 
more feet at a time, it shall be thor¬ 
oughly rammed over three times with a 
flat iron rammer, about one foot in di¬ 
ameter, weighing thirty or forty pounds, 
which must be done by lifting and drop* 3 
ping the rammer vertically. When the 




. 











































































' 








189 . 


bricks have been rammed, to a solid bear¬ 
ing and brought to a perfect surface,the 
interstices shall then be thoroughly and 
completely filled, from bottom to top, 
with distilled coal tar pitch (known as 
No - 6 } , heated up to 800 degrees. All 
crevices must be filled, and the entire 
top surface covered to a depth of not. 
less than one-fourth inch, and upon this 
must be spread one-fourth inch of clean, 
sharp sand, which must be comparatively 
dry and free from moisture. This sand 
must be thrown evenly over the boiling 
pitch, as rapidly as the pavement is 
filled in, and the pitch spread over the 
surface of pavement, the aim and object 
being to make the pavement one solid 
mass, which when completed, shall be 
practically a fixture and water tight. 
The bricks shall be rigidly inspected 
before being laid in the pavement, and 
all objectionable ones removed. The 
sand and pitch shall be acceptable, and 
shall also be applied as directed by the 
Engineer, or his Assistant, and to his 
entire satisfaction and acceptance. The 


pavement, when 
and conform to 


completed, must be smooth 
the grades given by the 















190 . 


Engineer. 

Dimensions of Brick-.*-** Square edged* 
to wit: Length? 8 3/4 inches; width* 4 
inches; thickness* 23/4 inches* Hall* 
wood block? patent- Length, 9 inches; 
width, 4 inches; thickness * 3 inches- 
Bricks thoroughly burned throughout to 
vitrifloat ion * 


Extracts from Specifications for Brick 
Pavingon Sand Foundation, Topeka > Eas. 
(Fig.113) 

The foundation for brick paving shall 
be six inches of clean river sand» free 
from clay, loam or other material, spread 
over the street and rolled thoroughly 
while damp, and when rolled the surface 
must conform exactly to the grades given 
by the City Engineer* 

The brick for paving shall all be 
2 1/4 st x 4 5 s x 8 ] 1 in siz.e» of the same 
kind and quality, burnt hard and vitri’* 
fled as near like the sample herewith as 
possible-. It is expressly understood 
that none of the outer brick of the 
kiln, or the very hard, brittle brick 

that have been over-burnt> shall be 

< 

used. None but the best of each kiln 














' 









191. 


shall be used. No brick that are 
warped, cracked, or that in any other 
way show imperfections, shall be re- 

I 

ceived. The brick may be inspected at 
the car on the railroad track, at the 
brick yard where made, or on the street 
where the paving is to be put down• The 
brick are to be hauled in wagons and 
dumped in piles on the ground as a fur¬ 
ther test, and all broken brick to be 
rejected* 

♦ 

The brick of the top and bottom cours¬ 
es shall all be alike* 

All brick shall be subject to the ap¬ 
proval of the City Engineer or his duly 
authorized Inspector, and any brick that 
may be found laid in the paving not up 
to standard quality shall be taken up 
and removed, by the contractor at his 
expense, when required to do so by the 
City Engineer* 

On the foundation of sand the first 
course of brick shall be laid flat upon 
their 4 8 9 x 8 s8 face, lengthways with 
the street * 

The brick must be well and closely 
laid, and all joints must be broken by 
at least three inches lap; the joints on 






192 . 


the bottom layer must be thoroughly 
filled with dry sand, rubbed and swept 
in; the bricklayer must be furnished 
with loose sand, and will not be allowed 
to dig into and loosen up the six-inch 
foundation course. After the first 
course is laid, any uneveness shall be 
taken out by the use of a hand roller 
and twenty- 3 five pound rammer, great care 
being exercised that the surface of the 
first course be true and parallel to the 
surface of the proposed street, as shown 
by the stakes of the Engineer. After 
this is done, then one inch of clean 
river sand shall be spread over the 
first course and brought to exact grade, 
as directed by the City Engineer. 

On this layer of sand shall be laid 
the top layer of brick, on their 3® f 

surface; the brick must be laid in even 
course, in close contact, and must break 
joints. Mo joints are to have less than 
three inches lap with the adjacent brick 
the courses to run across the street or 

r 

•at right angles to the line of greatest 
travel. 

At street intersections a-mitre shall 
be used if ordered by the City Engineer. 





















. 










_ 








193 • 

\ 

The upper layer of brick shall be eov* 
ered with sand> and swept and rubbed un¬ 
til all the joints are filled* and one 
Inch of sand spread over the surface 
evenly and left on the pavement. 


Fig,114 shows a brick pavement as laid 
in Davenport. Iowa, 

The foundation consists of a six inch 
layer of broken stone thoroughly rolled, 
sand being used as a binding material. 

On this is spread a four inch layer of 
clean river sand and the steam roller 
passed cver it a f ew tirnes * 

On the sand is placed a course of 

# hard--burned brick on their sides. A one 

inch , , , ,, . 

layer of sand is spread over trus as a 

bed for the paving bricks, which are set 

upon edge. The bricks are 8 1 *x 4* *x 

2 1/4 9 8 


11, Asphal t Pav era ent s . 
Bitumen in one of its forms 
quite extensively usee, as the 
material in street coverings. 


has been 
cementing 
It is a 


hydrocarbon whose composition, 
to Bousingault is, 


according 










































































































✓ 




















































194 . 


Carbon 85 per cent * 

Hydrogen 12 per cent * 

Oxygen 3 per cent. 

There are various forms of bitumen as 

follows:- 
Naphtha, 

Petroleum* 

Maltha or Mineral Tar? 

Asphalt or Mineral Pitch* 

Naphtha is a colorless liquid*and as¬ 
phalt is a dark brown or black solid. 
Between these in consistency are petro- 
1cum and maltha.. There seems to be no 
fixed line of separation between them, 
each passing insensibly into the next. 

Asphalt pavements may be- divided in 
reference to the method of laying into 
(1) Sheet Asphalt Pavements, 
f2 ) Asohalt Block Pavements. 

(1) There are two distinct kinds of 
sheet asphalt pavements. 

1st * That in which the asphalt is 
combined naturally with the body* of the 
pav@ment* 

2nd. That in which the asphalt is 
combined artificially with the body of 
the pavament. 

In Val do Travers in Switzerland, 
Seyssel in France, Vorwohle in Germany, 





















195 . 

Ragusa in Sicily, and some other local¬ 
ities there is found a bituminous lime¬ 
stone, often called rock asphalt, which 
consists of a limestone naturally im¬ 
pregnated with a small quantity of bi¬ 
tumen . 

It is used for paving purposes either 
in the form of compressed asphalt (as- 
phalte comprime) or mastic asphaltfas- 
phaliecoule ). The best foundation is 
a solid layer of cement concrete al¬ 
though a macadamised road or a stone 
block pavement may be used* 

The compressed asphalt is laid in the 
following manner. The rock asphalt is 
quarried and broken in a rock crusher to 
a size of two or three inches in diame¬ 
ter. These pieces are then ground to a 
powder between rollers, and this is 
heated to a temperature o<£ about 250 or 
260 degrees. It is then carried in cov¬ 
ered carts to the point where it is to 
be laid and spread on the concrete foun¬ 
dation. It is leveled to the required 
thickness with iron rakes and then 
rammed with hot cast iron rammers. It 
is then smoothed with hot smoothing 
irons after which it is rammed and 
























IU6 . 


rolled until cold* 

The asphalt is usually two or two and 
one-half inches thick after being com¬ 
pressed- and the powder should be spread 

h>' 

aiioui two fifths thicker to allow for 
the compression * 

The surface of the concrete should be 
perfectly dry when the hot powder is 
applied, otherwise steam will be formed 
which will injure the pavement. 

Some rocks contain too large and some 
too small a per cent of bitumen for pav¬ 
ing purposes, and in this ca.se a mixture 
of two rocks can be made which will con*' 
tain the required amount. To produce 
the best results it should contain about 
10$ of bitumen but this varies somewhat 
with the climate, a greater amount being 
needed in a cold than in a warm climate. 
The reason for this.is that an asphalt 
containing a large per cent of bitumen 
becomes soft at a high temperature, 
while one containing a small per cent 
becomes hard and brittle at a low tem¬ 
perature . 

The compressed asphalt is used almost 
entirely in Europe; Paris, Berlin and 
London. each having many miles of 










. 

. 




197 


streets pa;ved w5,th 11. 

In Kentucky * a sandstone containing a.- 
bout 10# of bitumen is found . This has 


been used to some extent prepared in the 

same manner as the limestone* not* how- 
ever* with much success thus far. 

In California also, a bituminous sane.” 
stone is found which is used for paving. 


It is disintegrated by 
then spread upon the f 
rol1ed * 


steam* and is 
oundation and 


The following test for rock asphalt 


was proposed by W.H.Delano in a paper 
read before the Inst, of Civil Engineers 
in 1880. *'A specimen of the rock 

freed from all extraneous matter> having 
been pulverized as finely as possible 
should be dissolved in Sulphuret of 


carbon* turpentine, ether, or benzine, 
placed in a glass vessel and stirred 
with a glass rod. A dark solution will 
result, from which will be precipitated 
thepulverized limestone. The solution 
of bitumen should then be poured off. 

The dissolvent speedily evaporates, 
leaving the constituent parts of the as¬ 


phalt, each of which should be weighed, 
so as to determine the exact proportion. 



Tlie bitumen should be heated, in a lead 
hath and tested with a porcelain or 
B&ume thermometer to 428 degrees Fah. 

There will be little loss by evaporation 

if the bitumen is good, but if bitumi- 

/ 

i*ous oil is present the loss will be 
considerable. Gritted mast to should be 


heated to 450 degrees Fah* The lime¬ 
stone should next be examined* If the 
powder is white* and soft to the touch, 
it is a good component part of asphalt 
but if rough and dirty, on being tested 
with reagents, it will be found to con¬ 
tain iron pyrites, silicates, clay > etc• 
Some asphalts also are of a spongy or 


hygrometrieal nature. Thus, as an anal-- 
y si s which merely gives so much bi turn Gr¬ 
and so much limestone may mislead, it is 
necessar y to lenow tho ouality cf the 

limestone and of the bitumen**, 

MaStic asphalt is very i11 tle used for 
pavements at the present day, although 
it was Quite extensively used in Europe 
several years ago. It was not found to 
give satisfactory results for this pur¬ 
pose , but it mates excellent foot-paths 
and floors. We will leave the descrip¬ 
tion of its preparation until the sub- 


i 


V 
































199 . 


jecfc of foot paths is reached. 

The second kind of asphalt pavement, 
that in which the asphalt is combined 
artificially with the body of the pave* 
merit » is the one most commonly laid in 
the United States. 

The cementing material is natural as¬ 
phalt or mineral pitch. The principal 
supply comes from the isiana of Trinidad 
in the British West Indies. It is also 
found in the island of Cuba, in Califor¬ 
nia, and in some parts of Europe. 

The asphalt of Trinidad occurs in what 
is called the ?u Pitch Lake 8 ®. This so- 
called lake is simply a level deposit of 
asphalt about 140 feet above sea level, 
containing about 114 acres. It is hard 
enough to bear the weight of a man on 
any part of its surface, but the con¬ 
sistency is such, that excavations made 
to the depth of two or three feet are 
entirely obliterated after a few days by 
the gradual rising of the bottom of the 
excavation. The material as obtained 
from the lake is of a dark brown color, 
and contains a.bout 40$ of bitumen, 40^ 
of earthy and vegetable impurities, and 

20# of water. 




















200 . 

The asphalt is brought to this country 

in the crude state and is refined by 

heating in tanks to a temperature of a* 

bout 500 degrees* This drives off the 

water and causes the lighter impurities 

to rise to the surface while the heavier 

• 

sink to the botcom. 

The asphalt thus formed is too brittle 
for use, hence there is added to it a- 
bout 15$ of heavy residuum oil ob¬ 
tained from the distillation of petro¬ 
leum. This mixture is called ! ’asphal* 
tic cement"' and is very tough. This 
cement is mixed with sand and finely 
pulverized limestone to form the wearing 
surface of the pavement. The propor¬ 
tions of the substances used vary some¬ 
what with difference in climate, between 
the following limits, 

Asphaltic Cement 12 to 16$ 

Sand 83 to 67^ 

Pulverized Carbonate of Lim e 5 to 17$ 

100 100 

The sand and asphaltic cement are 
heated separately to a temperature of a- 
bout 500 degrees Fah. The cold carbon¬ 
ate of lime is then mixed with the hot 
sand and this and the asphaltic cement 



















are then thoroughly mixed * 

The powder resulting from this mixture 
is spread, upon the concrete foundation 
at a temperature of about 250 degrees, 
and rolled until thoroughly compacted, a 
wash of hydraulic cement being swept 
over it while the rolling is in progress 


to give it a light color. 

Somatimes the asphalt is put on in two 
layers, the lower one being one half 
inch thick and containing a slightly 
larger per cent of the asphaltic cement. 
This is called the cushion coat and was 
formerly supposed to give a slight de¬ 
gree of elasticity to the pavement. It 


is generally dispensed with, however, as 


b e in g unnee essary, and 
ness, usually two and 
n i? p lied i n o n e 1 a y e r . 


t h o en t i r e t h 1 
o ne-ha1f inchas 



A sheet asphalt pavement is more fav- 


orable 
Kent« 


for traction than 
When k ep t c1 e an, 


any other pave- 
aspha1t gives a 


good foothold under ordinary conditions 
of weather * When covered with wet mud 

it is very slippery. 

Ob s ervations made in the Unlied State 
show that a horse will travel the fol¬ 
lowing distance before slipping:- 







. 









202 


On asphalt 
On granite 
On wood 


583 miles. 
413 miles. 
272 miles. 


Observations made in London show the 
following;~ 


On asphalt 
On granite 
On wood 


191 miles. 
132 miles. 
330 miles. 


It is claimed that the artificial 
mixture is less slippery than the rock 
asphalt on account of the large per cent 
of sand that it contains. A sheet as* ■ 
phalt pavement should not be used* how* 
ever* on a grade steeper than about 1 in 
50* It is free -from dust and mud unless 
brought on from other sources. It is 
impervious and smooth, hence* it can be 
easily cleaned. It is nearly noiseless. 
It is difficult to take up but can be 
relaid in as good condition as ever. 

It is quite expensive as to first cost 
but is economical as to maintenance. 
Under a moderate traffic an asphalt 
pavement will last about 15 years. 

The specifications of the Sicilian 
Asphalt Paving Co. for paving with rock 
asphalt fFig.118 ) are as follows,- 

Grading.—- The present pavement shall 





I 







203. 

be removed, and the subsoil shall then 
be excavated and removed to the depth of 
8 inches below the top line of the pro¬ 
posed pavement. Soft or spongy places 
not affording a firm foundation shall be 
dug out, refilled with good earth, clean 
gravel or sand, and well rammed, so as 
to make such, filling compact and solid, 
and the entire road-bed thoroughly 
rolled with a heavy roller. 

Foundation ---- Upon the road-bed thus 
prepared shall be laid a foundation of 
hydraulic cement concrete 6 inches in 
thickness, to be made as follows: One 
measure of cement, equal to the best 
quality of freshly burned Rosendale ce¬ 
ment, and tvro of clean, sharp sand, 
shall be well mixed dry > and then made 
into a mortar with the least possible a- 
mount of water. Broken stone, thor¬ 
oughly cleaned from dirt and drenched 
with water, but containing no loose 
water in the heap, shall be immediately 
incorporated with the mortar in such 
quantities as will give a surplus of 
mortar when rammed. This proportion, 
when ascertained, shall be regulated by 
measure. Each batch of concrete shall 






P - ' 


’ 











204 • 

r 

be thoroughly mixed• It shall then be 
spread and at once compacted by ramming 
until tree mortar appears* upon the sur¬ 
face. The whole operation of mixing and 
laying each batch shall be performed as 
quickly as possible. Ho gravel shall be 
used in the concrete, but only angular 
fragments of stone, having rough faces 
obtained by fracture, and of a size that 
will pass through a 2-inch ring. The 
upper surface of the concrete shall be 
made exactly parallel with the surface 
of the asphalt pavement to be laid 
thereon, and shall be 2 inches below the 
grade of the top of the finished pave* 
ment and exactly parallel thereto. 

i 

Wearing Surface.-*-- Upon this founda¬ 
tion. when sufficiently dry, the wearing 
surface, or pavement proper, shall be 
laid. . 

T-he material used shall be a mixture 
cf from three to four parts of the nat¬ 


ural bituminous lime-stone rock from the 

* 

Sicilian mines at Ragusa, with one part 

# 

of that from the Gorman mines at Vor- 
wchle. both, recks being equal in quality 
and composition to that mined by file 
United Limmer and Vorwohle Rock Asphalte 












205 * 

Company, Limited, and it shall be pre¬ 
pared and laid as follows: 

1. The lumps of rock shall be crushed 
and pulverized, and the powder passed 
through a fine sieve» the two sorts of 
rock being thoroughly mixed in the mill, 
nothing whatever shall be added to or 
taken from the powder obtained by grind 3 " 
ing bituminous rock. 

2. This powder shall be heated upon an 
open heater, constructed of fire-proof 
brick, to a temperature of about 160 de¬ 
grees Fahrenheit> and shall be brought 

tc the ground at such temperature in . 
suitable carts, and there carefully 
spread on the concrete foundation pre¬ 
viously prepared, to such depth, that 
after having received its ultimate com.- 
pression> it will have a thickness of 
two inches. 

3. It shall then be skillfully com¬ 
pressed by heated hand-rollers and ram¬ 
mers until it shall have the required 
thickness of two inches* 

4 . The surface shall then be rendered 
ev on by heated smoothor s. 

5- The pavement shall fin ally, after 
completion, be rolled for two or three 



clays with a heavy hors enroll er • 

Railroad Tracks.*-- When street or 
other railroad, tracks run through -or' a~ 
cress streets to be paved with asphalt, 
a line of granite paving blocks, each 
not more than 5 nor less than 4 inches 


in width, shall be set upon a bed of 6 
inches of concrete* between the rails 
and the asphalt. The joints between the 
blocks shall be filled with cement. The 
upper surface of the blocks shall be 
flush with the highest part of the rails. 
The line of granite blocks shall be of 
one uniform width* and the upper surface 


of the pavement shall be 1/2 inch higher 
than that of the blocks. 

Repairs Free of Charge.--- The Asphalt 


Company shall, during the period of ..... 
years from the date of the acceptance of 
the work, execute free of charge any and 
all repairs of the pavement that may be¬ 


come necessary through legitimate wear 
and tear, or from natural causes. 

Other Repairs The Asphalt Company 

sha ii, during tiie said, period, lay and 
restore the pavement over trenches made 
for laying-water and gas pipes. 


sewers. 




1 





207 . 

per centum above the original contract 
price* and when once so laid and re.- 
stored' maintain the same in the same 
state of repair and for the balance of 
the time as agreed to for the other 
parts of the pavement. The asphalt re¬ 
moved for the purpose of digging said 
trenches shall become the property of 
the Asphalt Company. 

The specifications of the Barber As¬ 
phalt Paving Co. for their Class A. 
Standard Pavement (Fig.117) are as fol¬ 
lows 

1st. We propose to lay Trinidad As¬ 
phalt Pavements two and one-half (2 1/2) 
inches in thickness when compressed* 
with a base of hydraulic cement-concrete 
six (6) inches in depth. 

Roadbed.-2nd. All unnecessary ma¬ 
terial will be removed from the street; 
soft or spongy places, not affording a 
firm foundation * will be dug out and re¬ 
filled with good earth, well rammed, and 
the entire roadbed will bo thoroughly 
rolled. 

Foundation.---3rd. Upon the roadbed 
thus prepared will be laid a bed of hy~ 

i 




208 . 


draulic cement-concrete six inches in 
thickness, to bo made as follows: 

One measure of American cement, equal 
to the best quality of freshly burned 
Rosendale cement, and two of clean, 
sharp sand will be thoroughly mixed dry, 
and then made into mortar with the least 
possible amount of water; broken stone, 
slag or gravel thoroughly cleaned from 
dirt, drenched with water, but contain¬ 


ing no loose water in the heap, will 
then be incorporated immediately with 
the mortar in such quantities as will 


give a surplus of mortar when rammed. 
This proportion, when ascertained, will 
be regulated by.measure- Each batch of 
concrete will be thoroughly mixed. It 
will then be spread, and at once thor¬ 
oughly compacted by ramming until free 
mortar appears upon the surface. The 
whole operation of mixing and laying 
each batch will be performed as expedi¬ 
tiously as possible. The upper surface 
will be made exactly parallel with the 
surface of the pavement to be laid* 

Upon this base will be laid the wearing 
surface, or pavement proper, the cement¬ 
ing material of which is a paving cement 




209 • 

prepared frora the Pest; quality of pure 
Trinidad Asphaltum, obtained from the 
so-called pitch - or asphalt - lake in 
the Island of Trinidad, unmixed with any 
of the products of coal tar. 

Wearing Surface •---•±th. The wearing 
surface will be composed of: 

Asphaltic Cement from 12 to 15 

Sand * 11 85 *' 70 

Pulverized Carbonate 

of Lime 8 ’ 5 ’ 0 15 

«*= ok * mm 

100 100 

In order to make the pavement homoge¬ 
neous . the proportion of asphaltic ce¬ 
ment must be varied according to quality 
and character of the sand- The carbon¬ 
ate of lime may be reducedj or omitted 
entirely, when suitable sand can be ob¬ 
tained • 

The sand and asphaltic cement are 
heated separately to about three hundred 
degrees Fahrenheit. The pulverized car¬ 
bonate of lime, while cold, is mixed 
with the hot sand in the required pro¬ 
portions, and is then mixed with the. as¬ 
phaltic cement at the required tempera¬ 
ture. and in the proper proportions, in 
a suitable apparatus, which will effect 



















































21Q . 


a perfect mixture. 

The pavement mixture, prepared in the 
manner thus indicated* will be laid on 
the foundation in one coat; it will be 
brought to the ground in carts or wagons 
at a temperature of about 250 degrees 
Fahrenheit; it will, then be carefully 
spread* by means of hot iron rakes, on 
the foundation, in such manner as to 
give a uniform and regular grade, and to 
such ciepth that after having received 
its ultimate compression it will have a 
thickness of two and one.-half inches. 

The surface will then be compressed by 
rollers, after which a small amount of 
hydraulic cement will be swept over it, 
and it will tnen be thoroughly compressed 
by a steam roller; the rolling being 
continued as long as it makes an im¬ 
pression on the surface. 

Should there be a railroad track on 
the street, the edge of the asphalt 
pavement adjacent to the track will be 
protected by a line of stone paving 
blocks on each side of the rail. 

5th, The pavement shall be laid under 
proper official inspection. It shall be 
guaranteed for a period of five years 



211 . 


^rom 

f ie » 


the date when it Is opened to traf- 
ana during saia period all defects 


in the pavement due to its proper use as 


^ roadway shall be repaired and made 
good without additional expense. 

•*» uc- fT- «•- %* TXi «a fc*4 ■fft' .tat- c*t> rt aw* «= <ik -» «» rr «» -a=\ 


The Barber Asphalt Paving Co. Class F 
pavement (Fig.118} has a 4 inch layer of 
cement concrete, a I *4.inch binding layer 
of bituminous concrete, s^nd a 1 1/2 Inch 
wearing surface of Trinidad Asphalt. 


( 2 } Asphalt block Pavement. Com-" 
pressed blocks, made of a mixture of as¬ 
phaltic cement and crushed limestone, 
have been usee for some time in this 
country. They are 12 inches long, 4 in¬ 
ches wide ana 5 inches deep. 


The method of manufacturing them is as 
follows,- The limestone is crushed un¬ 
til it contains no pieces larger than 


one piiar t- er inch in ci i amiet er , Q,u 11 o a 
portion of it being reduced to powder. 

It is then heated to a temperature of a- 
bout 250 degrees Fab. and mixed with 
Lout 10^ of its weight of Trinidad as.* 
phaltic cement which is at about the 
sane temperature. It is then put in a 



212 . 


mold and subjected to a pressure of a- 
bout 3000 pounds to the square inch. 

These - blocks are laid in the same man¬ 
ner as stone blocks, sometimes on a con¬ 
crete foundation but more commonly on 
sand or gravel. (Fig.119) The blocks 
are laid in close contact and usually 
without any filling in the joints, as 
the nature of the material is such that 
the joints will become practically water 
tight after the traffic has passed over 
the pavement a short time. 

For very light traffic asphalt blocks 
make a satisfactory pavement. but they 
wear too rapidly for heavy traffic* 

Their first cost, when the concrete 
foundation is omitted, is usually a 
little less than that of sheet asphalt. 

Before leaving the subject of asphalt, 
I wish to call attention to the fact 

% 

that in Europe the nomenclature estab¬ 
lished by Leon Male is adhered to by 
many engineers. This gave the name, 
asphalt, only to the bituminous lime¬ 
stone which we have called rock asphalt, 
and not to the mineral pitch which we 

call asphalt. 

12. Coal Tar Pavements. 



215 .. 

real tar has bee trieu as a substi¬ 


tute for the asphaltic cement in the 
construction of pavements, but without 
much success- m ho coal tar contains 
volatile oil which evaporates in a short 
time causing the pavement to crumble co 
powder* ..The only coal tar pavements 
which nave met with any degree of suc¬ 
cess are those which contain a certain 
amount of asphaltic cement* They are 
all * however » much inferior to asphalt. 
The sor- ca. 1' ecl VuIcaxiite Pavem•:nt is the 
best of this class and has been laid 


with a fair degree of success, especial¬ 
ly in Washington, BO. 

The specifications for this pavement 

are as fo 11ows ,~ 


i. The vulcanite 
will be eight and o 


a spiral 11 c pav eir.en t 
e -haX f { 8 i/2 ) inch** 


es in thickness, 
ing surface will 


as fol1ows. The wear* 
be one and one-hoif 


(1 1/2} inches in thickness when 
pacted, with a bituminous base ar 
er seven inches in depth* 



OBI — 

bind ' 1 


2. The space ever which. Che pavement 

is to be laid will be excavated to the 
depth of eight and one-half (81/2) inch¬ 
es below the top surface of the pavement 



21 *. 


when completed- Any obj actionable or 

unsuitable material below the oed will 
be removed, arid the space filled with 
clean gravel or sand well rammed- The 
bed will then be trimmed so as to be ex- 
actly parallel to the surface of the new 
pavement when completed, ana the entire 
road"toed will be thoroughly rolled with 
?. heavy steam-roller. Upon the founda¬ 
tion will be laid the base and binder. 
seven (7) inches in thickness, in the 
following manners 

&. Trie s ’base 5 ' will be composed of 
clean broken stone, that will pass 
through a three (3) inch ring, well 
rammed, and rolled with a steam-roller 
to the depth of five (5) inches, and 
thoroughly coated with hot paving cement 
composed of No - 4 tar distillate in the 
proportion of about one {11 gallon to 
the square yard of pavement. 

*i. The second or ‘'binder 5 8 course 
will be composed of clean broken stone, 
thoroughly screened, not exceeding one 
end. one-quarter {1 1/4) inches in the 
largest dimensions, and No.4 tar dis¬ 
tillate. The stone will be heated by 
passing through revolving heaters, and 



215 . 

thoroughly mixed by machinery with the 
distillate in the proportion of one 
gallon of distillate to one (1) cubic 

foot of stone. 

The §s binder® 8 will be hauled to 
the worh> spread upon the base course at 
least two (2) inches thick, and immed¬ 
iately rammed and rolled with hand and 

cl rx d 

heavy steam-rollers while in a hot„plas- 
tic condition. 

6. The wearing surface will be one 
and one-half (1 1/2) inches thick when 
compacted, made of paving cement, com¬ 
posed of twenty-five (25) per cent of 
asphalt and seventy-five (75) per cent 
of distillate mixture, with other ma¬ 
terials. as follows: Clean sharp sand 
will be mixed with pulverized stone of 
such dimensions as to pass through a 
one-quarter (1/4) inch screen in the 
proportion of two to one. 

To twenty-one (21) cubic feet of the 
above named, mixture will be added one 
peck of dry nydraulic cement, one quart 
of flour of sulphur, and two quarts of 
air-slacked lime. To this mixture will 
be added three hundred and twenty (520) 
pounds of paving cement, to compose the 









216 . 


wearing surface. 

7. The material will be heated to a- 
bout 250 Fahr. - the paving cement in 
kettles* the sand and stone* etc* in re¬ 
volving heaters.. They will be thorough* 
iy mixed by improved machinery, and the 
mixture carried upon the work* when it 
will be spread upon the binder course 
two (2) inches thick with hot iron rakes 
and other suitable appliances, and im~ 
mediate iy compacted with tamping-irons * 
hand and steam rollers, while in a hot 
and plastic state. The surface will be 
finished with a dusting of dry hydraulic 
cement rolled in* 

8. The pavement so constructed must 
be a solid mass, eight and one-half (8 
1/2 ) inches thick> and will be thor¬ 
oughly rolled and cross-rolled until it 
has become hard arid solid. 

9. The pavement shall be equal in 
every respect to that laid on K Street» 

V —" 

between Nimbi and Eighteenth Streets ,N.W 
Washington. D.C. , in 1874 and 1875. 



FOOTPATHS. 

Sidewalks or other footpaths may be 
constructed of any of che following 
materials 

1. Earth. 

2. Broken Stone. 

3 Gravel . 

4. Plank. 

5. Brick • 

6. Stone. 

7. Cement Concrete* 

8 - Asphalt. 

9 - Coal Tar * 

1. Earth footpaths are objectionable 
as they become muddy in wet weather. If 
made of a material that will pack well, 
as a mixture of sand and clay, they are 
very satisfactory for dry weather and 
make a very pleasant walk* 

Special attention should in any case, 
be paid to the drainage of the subsoil, 
other wise the walk will become a mass 
of mud when the frost is coming out of 
the ground* 

2. Broken Stone makes an excellent 
walk for parks, suburban streets,streets 
of villages and small cities, or where a 
foot path is needed on a country road= 



218 . 


They should be constructed in much the 
same manner as a carriage road except 
that a less thickness of metal is re* 
quired* and the stones should be smaller 

The subsoil should be well drained and 

\ 

the metal applied in layers and thor¬ 
oughly rolled with a horse roller* A 
thickness of from 4 to 6 inches on a 
good, dry soil will make a good walk• 

The top layer should be of very fine 
stone or screenings, not suitable for 
the roadway, 

8- Gravel may be used instead of 
broken stone, and with nearly as good 

results. It should be from 4 to 6 inch¬ 
es thick. The surface layer should not 
contain an excess of earthy material, as 
this will become mud in wet weather. 

The walk should be thoroughly rolled * 

4-. Plank sidewalks are very common* 
especially where lumber is cheap. They 
are usually made of 2 inch plank, laid 
either in a transverse or longitudinal 
direction. (Fig* 120) The former is 
the more common method in the western 
cities while the latter is generally 
used in this section of the country. 

The planks should be spiked to timbers 
















































' 





























































I 





























































































* 




219 . 

resting upon the ground 2 to 4 feet a.- 

part * 

5 * Brick sidewalks are extensively 
used In some cities. The bricks should 
be hard burned but not necessarily as 
hard as for street pavements. They are 
usually laid on a bed of sand or gravel* 
They may be laid on either their side or 
edge transversely across the walk, or in 
Lerring-bone style. {Fig. 121) If used 
for side walks on business streets, 
where heavy loads are likely to be 
dropped upon them from wagons. they 
should be laid upon edge as for street 
pavements. The joints are commonly 
filled with sand. A filling of cement 
grout is preferable for heavy traffic as 
it gives a better bond between the 
bricks and thus prevents unequal settle^ 
merit - 

•dV~ *me <•> am- iwr> am* **=» sac-’ •» arm a* ram <r*» mm am* mm a/s am* -ms rm* «*-' nu; 

The specifications for laying brick 
sidewalk in Boston are as follows,.** 

Laying Brick Sidewalk. 

All new bricks that may be required to 
pave the sidewalks vrill be furnished to 
the Contractor by the City. 

The bricks in the existing, sidawalks 


220 . 

shall be carefully taken up and placed 
in piles by the Contractor. Such of 
these bricks as* in the opinion of the 
Superintendent of Streets, aresuitable 
for the work, shall be culled, by the 
Contractor, from those taken up, and re- 
laid in place of new bricks. 

The Contractor shall excavate the 
sidewalk to a depth of 10 in. below the 
finished grade of the brick paving, and 
the material at this sub-grade shall be 
thoroughly compacted by rolling or 
ramming. 

Any objectionable material below this 
sub-grade shall be excavated, and the 
space filled with thoroughly compacted 
gravel . Care must be taken in excava¬ 
ting to preserve the proper slope paral¬ 
lel with the proposed surface. 

Upon this prepared sub-grade will be 
spread a layer of fine gravel which 
shall be 4 in. in thickness after being 
thoroughly compacted by rolling or ram¬ 
ming, and which shall be free from 
stones larger than 3/4 in. in their 
greatest dimensions. 

After this foundation has been thor¬ 
oughly compacted, another layer of clean 





221 . 

sharp sand 4 in. in thickness, to serve 
as a bed for the bricks * shall be spread 
upon the sidewalk foundation,upon which 
the bricks will be laid. 

Special care shall be taken to make 
the surface of this sand"bed parallel 
with the surface of the proposed- brick 
paving, and in laying the bricks the 
pavers must not stand or kneel upon this 
sand bed. 

The bricks shall be laid on their-- 

and either at right angles with the 
line of the street or in herring-bone 
style, as the Superintendent of Streets 
may direct. The bricks are to be laid 
with close joints, and each course of 
bricks is to be of uniform width and 
depth, and so laid that all longitudinal 
joints shall be broken by a lap of at 
least 2 in. When thus laid the bricks 
shall be immediately covered with clean, 
fine, dry sand, screened through a sieve 
having not less than twenty meshes to an 
inch. The bricks will then be carefully 
rammed by placing a plank over several 
courses and ramming the plank with a 
heavy rammer or hammier. 

The ramming will be continued until 




op 0 

tf**/ #*w ? * 


the bricks reach a firm, unyielding bed, 

and present a uniform surface with prop-* 
er grade and slope. Any lack of uni¬ 
formity in the surface must be corrected 


by taking up and relaying * When the 
ramming iscompleted * a sufficient, amount 


of fine, 
shall be 


dxy sand» as above described, 
spread over the surface and 


swept or raked into the ioints. 

Suitable areas shall be left unpaved 
around the frees in the sidewalk, if 
such exist, as directed by the Super¬ 
intendent of Streets. 

Edges of the brick sidewalk when not 


abutting against the curb or buildings 


will be f 1 nished by a continuous row of 
bricks set on edge, 

6, Stone. Slabs of granite 6 to 8 
inches thick are often used for sidewalk 
on business streets, (Fig.122) They 
are especially useful where there is an 


open space under the sidewalk, as they 
can be made to span the distance from * 
the curb to the building if the walk is 
narrow, or can be supported on trans~ 
verse beams if the walk is wide. 

Flagstones from 2 to 4 inches thick 


jl a in 


cl 


ect'ly on 


the 


sox 


\s X 


on a bed 


o i 



an excel 1 eut wal.< . 


sand or gravel males* 

In I wverpool the sidewalks are laid with 


flagstones 5 inches thick.with a surface 
net less than 2 by 3 feet* 

7. Cement Concrete* Concrete side- 
walks are used quite extensively in some 
parts of the United States and make a 


good substitute for stone. They may be 


made either in place, or molded in 


blocks ana laid in the same manner as 


flagstones 


If made in place, a foundation of sand 
or gravel, or better still broken stone 
(Fig.123} should be prepared and consol¬ 
idated • On this the concrete should be 
laid in two layers having a total thick¬ 
ness of 3 or 4 inches, the first layer 
being composed of cement, sand and brok¬ 
en stone, and the surface layer, \irhich 
should be about 1/2 inch thick, of ce¬ 
ment and sand only. The concrete should 
be spread upon the foundation and thor~ 


oughly r ammed . 

It is laid in sections of 20 or 25 
superficial feet, boards set on edge be¬ 
ing used as a form in which to mold the 
slab. Portland cement should be used in 
the top layer but a good American cement 





224 . 

will do for the bottom layer. For the 
surfacelayer a fine crushed granite may 
be used instead of sand. Traffic should 
not be allowed upon the walk until the 
cement has hardened. 

The blocks of cement are made in vari¬ 
ous sizes and shapes. Two very common 
forms are shown in Fig.124. They are 
laid on a bed of sand* gravel, or broken 
stone . 

8. Asphalt. Footpaths of asphalt al¬ 
though not very common in this country* 
are quite extensively used in Europe. 
They may be laid in a single sheet (Fig. 
125} or in the form of compressed blocks 
(Fig.126 ) 

The sheet form may be constructed of 
the natural rock asphalt or of the arti¬ 
ficial mixture. 

4 , 

The foundation should be firm andun- 
yielding* either cement or bituminous 
concrete, or some other solid material. 
The concrete foundation for a footpath 
need not exceed 3 or 4 inches in thick** 

i . x 

ness . 

The natural rock may be laid either in 
the compressed or mastic form. 

The method of laying the compressed 


) 




asphalt is the same as that already de¬ 
scribed for constructing pavements, ex¬ 
cept that the layer of asphalt need not 
be more than 3/4 to 1 inch in thickness. 

The preparation of the mastic asphalt 
which has been used to some extent for 
street pavements, is as followsThe 
natural rock is ground to powder as for 
the compressed asphalt. It is then 
mixed with from 5 to 8$ of mineral pitch 
like that obtained at Trinidad-. The 
pitch is first refined and heated in a 
large tank and the powdered rock is add~ 
ed gradually, the mixture being stirred 
constantly. The mixture is then poured 
into molds and allowed to cool,forming 
blocks weighing about 50 pounds each- 
In this form it is transported to the 
point where it is to be used- The 
blocks are then broken into small pieces 
weighing two or three pounds and melted* 
2 or 3 per cent of mineral pitch being 
added to replace that lost by evapora¬ 
tion- To the mixture is then added a 
certain amount of sand or finely crushed 
stone. The mastic is then poured upon 
the surface of the concrete foundation 
and spread with a wooden trowel. A small 
amount of sand is then dusted over the 




226 . 

surface and the walk is ready for traf¬ 
fic as soon as it has become cool. 

When the mastic is to be used near 
where it is prepared> it is not necessa¬ 
ry to mold it into cakes, but the sand 
is added to the mixture of powdered rock 
and bitumen, and applied to the founda¬ 
tion the same as above. 

Sidewalks of asphalt have a life in 
London» under heavy traffic* of from 12 
to 15 years, the compressed form being 
somewhat more durable than the mastic. 

In this country the artificial mixture 
has been used to some extent, prepared 
in the same manner as for street pave¬ 
ments. The thickness of the asphalt 
surface is usually about 1 inch. 

Following are the specifications of 
the Barber Asphalt Paving Co. for laying 
such a sidewalk* 

1st. We propose to lay Trinidad As¬ 
phalt Sidewalks and Driveways one (1) 
inch in thickness when compressed; with 
a base of broken stone three (3) inches 
in depth. 

Preparation of Bed*"*" 2nd- The space 
over which the Sidewalk or Driveway is 
























227 . 

to be laid will be excavated to a depth, 
of four {4 ) inches below the finished 
grade of sidewalk. 

All unnecessary material will be re« 
moved from the walk; soft or spongy 
places, not affording a firm foundation, 
will be dug out and refilled with good 
earth, well rammed, and the entire road¬ 
bed will be thoroughly rolled. 

Foundation . 3rd. Upon the bed 

thus prepared will be laid a base com¬ 
posed of clean broken stone, slag or 
gravel> that will pass through a 2 1/2 
inch ring, spread to a thickness of four 
{4) inches thoroughly compressed by 
roiling with a heavy roller to a thick¬ 
ness of three (3) inches. It will be 
thoroughly coated with coal tar residuum 
commonly known as No. 4 Paving Composi¬ 
tion’ or other bituminous material e- 
qually good, in the proportion of about 
ten gallons to one cubic yard of stone. 
The upper surface will be made exactly 
parallel with the surface of- the pave¬ 
ment to be laid. Upon this base will be 
laid the wearing surface or pavement 
proper, the cementing material of which 
is Paving Cement prepared from the best 



228 . 


quality of pure Trinidad Asphaltum. ob¬ 
tained from the so-called pitch - or as- 
phalt - lake in the Island of Trinidad, 
unxaxxed with any of the products of coal 
tar. 

Wearing Surface.- 4th. The wearing 

surface will be composed of; 

Asphaltic Cement from 12 to 15 

Sand ! 1 83 to "?0 

Palverixed carbonate 

of Lime 8,1 5 to 15 

•n^ *m~ m+» mta gaf tss* 

100 100 

In order to make the pavement homoge¬ 
neous, the proportions of Asphaltic Ce¬ 
ment must be varied, according to quality 
and character of sand- The cai^bonate of 
lime may be reduced or omitted entirely, 

n 

when suitable sand can be obtained* 

The sand and Asphaltic Cement are 
heated separately to about three hundred 
degrees Fahrenheit. The Pulverized 
carbonate of lime, while cold, is mixed 
with the hot sand in the required pro¬ 
portions, and is then mixed with the 
Asphaltic Cement at the required tem¬ 
perature > .and in the proper proportions, 
in a suitable apparatus, which will ef* 
feet a perfect mixture. 



229 


The pavement mixture, prepared in the 
manner thus indicated, will be brought 
to the ground in carts or wagons, at a 
temperature of about 250 degrees Fail- 
renheit; it will then be carefully 
spread > by means of hot iron rakes, and 
in such a'manner as to give a regular 
and uniform grade, and to such a depth 
that after having received its ultimate 
compression it will have a thickness of 
one inch. The surface will then be coni* 
pressed by rollers, after which a small 
amount of hydraulic cement will be swept 
over it, and it will then be thoroughly 
compressed by a heavy roller; the roll¬ 
ing being continued as long as it makes 


an impression on the surface. 

5th. The pavement shall be laid under 
proper official inspection. It shall bo 
guaranteed for a period of five years 
from the date when it is opened to traf¬ 
fic, and during said period all defects 
in the pavement due to its proper use as 
a roadway shall be repaired and made 
good without additional expense. 


Compressed blocks, formed of a mixture 
of Trinidad asphalt and crushed lime- 




I 






V 


230 . 

stone In the same proportions as for as¬ 
phalt paving blocks, make an excellent 
walk. Tney may be laid on a bed of sand 
or gravel and retain an even surface on 
account of the adhesion between the ed¬ 
ges of the blocks. They are made in two 
shapes, square and hexagonal, 8 inches 
across and 2 1/2 inches thick. (Fig 126) 
3. Coal Tar. Sidewalks made of a 
mixture of coal tar and gravel, or brok~ 
en stone are quite satisfactory for 
surburban streets. They are usually 
laid in two or three layers having a 
total thickness of 3 to 4 inches, the 
top layer being composed of tar and sand^ 
In Newton,Mass. the coal tar sidewalks 
are constructed in three layers.(Fig.127) 
The foundation course consists of a 
layer of clean gravel not over 2 ; * in 
diameter, thoroughly coated with hot 
coal tar paving cement. This layer is 
not less than 2 1/2* 1 thick after being 
thoroughly compacted by ramming and 
rolling. 

The binding .course comsists of clean 
screened gravel / not over V 1 in diameter, 
mixed with coal tar composition in the 
proportions of one cubic foot of the 










. 

V 



















231- 


gravel to one gallon of the coal tar. 
This is spread while hot upon the foun¬ 
dation to such a thickness that after 
being relied It shall have a thickness 
of at least one inch. 

The wearing surface consists of clean*, 
screened;sharp sand heated and mixed 
with hot coal tar in the proportions of 
about 85$ of the sand and 15$ of the 
coal tar. The sand is of such a size 
that not over 20$ remains on a sieve of 
20 meshes to the inch* and. about 60$ 
remains on a sieve of 40 meshes to the 
inch. Not over 5$ will pass through a 
sieve of 60 meshes to the inch. 

The mixture is spread while hot over 
the binding course* and thoroughly 
rolled to a thickness of one half inch. 
The surface is then sprinkled with sand, 
and again rolled. 

Under the subject of footpaths a word 
may be said in regard to crosswalks. 

Planks are sometimes used for cross¬ 
walks in places where stone can not be 
easily obtained, but they wear rapidly 
and should not be used except as a tem¬ 
porary expedient. 

Crosswalks of coal tar laid in the 


232 . 


same manner as sidewalks but somewhat 
thicker are used to some extent in sub¬ 
urban towns. 

The best material for crosswalks is 
stone. As usually laid it is in slabs 
from 6 to 8 inches thick, 14 to 24 inch¬ 
es wide and not less than 3 feet long. 

If more than one width is required’ two 
or more rows may be laid side by side, 
breaking joints in the direction across 
the line of the walk. Very often the 
rows are separated from each other by 
one or more rows of stone paving blocks. 

A stone that aoes not polish under 
traffic is best for the purpose as the 
smooth surface of the crossing stones 
affords, at best, a very poor foothold 
for horses. In Liverpool this diffi¬ 
culty is overcome to a certain extent by 
cutting a groove along the center line 
of the surface of the stone. 

Crosswalk stones are set on abed of 
sand or gravel,.or> in the case of a 
paved street > usually on the same foun¬ 
dation as the pavement. 




\ 


233 . 

CURBS AND GUTTERS. 

Along the edge of the footpath, be- 
tween it and the road., some sort of a 
curb is usually set. The simplest form 
and one that does very well for gravel 
walks, is a simple border of seas slop¬ 
ing up from the ’gutter to the edge of 
the walk which is six or eight inches 
above it. 

Another simple border for the sidewalk 
of a country road consists of a single 
row of cobblestones . 

The most common form of curb is rnaae 
of stone in lengths of three feet or 
more- It varies in width and depth in 
different localities, ranging from 4* to 
8 or even 12 inches wide, and from 1 to 
3 feet deep. 

Stone curbs are usually set on a foun~ 
dation of sand or gravel. When the 
foundation of-the adjacent pavement is 
of concrete or broken stone, it is quite 
common to have a similar foundation for 
the curb. This is especially advisable 
with a shallow curb. 

The curb should be hammer dressed on 

the top and down the face as far as it 
is exposed> also on the back for a depth 


























~v 

J 


234 . 

f three or four inches to give a true 
surface for the sidewalk to butt against 

Curbs of concrete maae in slabs are 
used, in some cities, They are made of 
cement, sand and broken stone in much 
the same manner m which the concrete 
sidev/alks are made. The face of the 
curb should be made of cement and sand 


onxy • 

With brick pavements a curb of the 
same material has been used* though not 


to any great extent. 


Gutters are constructed in either 
two general forms. The most common 
is formed bv the intersection of the 


o f 


one 


slope of the roadway with the face of 
the curb, the lowest point being close 
to the curb. In the other form the 
gutter is a concave channel> and the 


curb is sometimes omitted. 

With a macadamized or gravel roadway, 
the gutter is sometimes left without any 


paving. 

A very common form of gutter for such 
a macadam street consists of cobblestone 
laid as for a street pavement to a width 
of two or three feet. Cobble stone gut¬ 
ters are also used in some of the west-* 







235 . 


era cities when the roadway is paved 
with cedar blocks. 

The usual method of constructing the 
gutter with wood and stone block as well 
as brick and asphalt pavement is simply 
to extend the paving to the face of the 
curb. With a block pavement, five or 
six rows of blocks are sometimes laid 
in a longitudinal direction. This ar¬ 
rangement gives a better channel for the 
water» but the joints are likely to de¬ 
velop ruts as they are in the line of 
the traffic. 

Sometimes slabs of stone 15 or 18 
inches wide and 3 or 4 inches thick are 
used to form a gutter. An objection to 
these is that, if they are not very 
carefully bedded, they will tip under 
heavy loads. Another objection is the 
tendency to form ruts along their edges 
which is not entirely done away with by 
making the stones alternately of differ¬ 
ent widths, as 15 and 18 inches, as is 
sometimes done. 

Gutters as well as curbs are sometimes 
made of concrete. They are made both in 
the shape of slabs, and also in combi-, 
nation with the curb. 



\ 


236 . 

Figs.128 to 132 show some forms of 
gutters that were used in New York, 
Central Park. In Fig. 128 the curb and. 
gutter are both of dressed blue stone. 

In Fig. 129 the curb is of rough quarry 
stone and the gutter of cobble stone. 

In Fig.130 the curb and gutter are of 
brick. In Fi*g.l3i the curb is blue 
stone and the gutter of rough quarry 
stone. In Fig.132 the curb and gutter 
are rough quarry stone. 

Fig. 133 shows a curb and gutter used 
to some extent in Providence.R.1. for 
a macadam street. The gutter is of 
cobble stones covered with a layer of 
concrete. 

In Liverpool>{Fig.134 ) the curb stones 
are not less than 3 feet long or 12 
inches deep, and are 6 inches thick at 
the top and? inches thick,5 inches below 
the top. The gutter is made of stone 
slabs 3 inches thick> 16 inches wide and 
not less than 3 feet long. 

Fig-135 shows the method of setting 
curb on a concrete foundation as used in 
Albany,N . Y. on a street paved with as¬ 
phalt . 

The following are the Boston specifi- 






237 . 


cations for curbstones or edgestones. 

The edgestones are to be of Q,uincy, 

Cape Ann. or other equally good granite, 
but all of the same color. and are to be 
cut in lengths of not less than 6 feet, 
to be free from bunches and depressions, 
and to have horizontal beds; the ends to 
the entire depth to be squared with the 
top, and so cut as to be set with ioints 
of not more than 3/8 of an inch without 
mortar; the edgestones to be out of wind. 
The hammered surfaces are to be full to 
line. The edgestones are to be 7 inches 
wide on top and 20 inches deep; they are 
to be hammered on top, fine-pointed 3 
inches down on the tack, and squared 
with the top> and fine-poxnfed 10 inches 
down on the face; the remainder of the 
face is to be rough-pointed to a true 
and even surface. The face is to be 
cut square with the top > 

Each and every length of edgestone to 
be equal in quality and finish to the 
sample portion on exhibition in the 
Superintendent of Streets*office at the 
time of making this contract, and to be 
satisfactory to said Superintendent of 
Streets. 

The following are the Chicago specific 








236 . 


cations,- 

Curb stone shall be of the best quali¬ 
ty of lime stone > free from cracks, 
seams, and sand pockets* straight and 
not less than four (4 ( ) feet long, three 
{3 ' ) feet deep, and five ( 5 B ) inches 
thick when dressed* 

Top edge to be full and square, and 
neatly bush hammered. The face shall 
also be neatly bush hammered not less 
than twelve inches down from the 

top * 

The ends to be dressed smooth, so as 
to make close joints full thickness of 
the stone not less than one (l 9 ) foot 
down from the top. 

The back side of the stone shall be 
dressed to a uniform thickness of five 
(5 fi ) inches at least three {3 5 ' ) inches 
down from the top* 

The bottom shall be straight and firm*” 
ly set upon blocks of flat stone not 
less than one (l 9 ) foot by eight fB 91 ) 
inches by six { 6 * * ) inches thick* 

The corner or catch basin stones at 
the corners of the streets must be cut 
to a true circle of three (3 5 } feet ra¬ 
dius , must be neatly bush hammered 
eighteen {18* * ) inches down from the top 


/ 


239 . 

and the top must also be neatly bush 
hammered and free from drill holes or 
other defects. 

The inlet to the catch basins must be 
-Cuv {4 3 5 ) inches deep, fourteen f 14 6 8 ) 
inches wide, cut from the bottom of the 
stone to within nine (9* 8 ) inches of 

the top. 

Fig. 136 shows a combination curb and 
gutter made of concrete used in Duluth, 
Minn. with cedar block pavement on a 
concrete foundation. 

Fig. 137 shows a concrete curb and 
gutter used in Topeka, Kas. The speci¬ 
fications for these are as follows,* 
Cement Curb and Gutters. 

Cement or artificial stone curb and 
gutters shall be made of the best quali¬ 
ty of imported Portland cement, in good 
condition, free from lumps, ground fine, 
so that eighty-five per cent, will pass 
through a No- 120 sieve, and mixed with 
two parts of sand; shall stand a tensile 
strain of 160 pounds per square inch 
seven days after it is made up and kept 
immersed in water, and 230 pounds thirty 
days after being made up; or the neat 
cement shall stand a tensile strain of 



240 . 


500 pounds per square inch after six 
clays in water and one day in air, and 
shall have at the same time a crushing 
strength of two thousand (2*000) pounds 
per square inch* 

Dimensions and Shape of Curb, 

The cement curb shall be twenty inches 
deep, five inches thick, and Tour feet 
longs as shown on plan* The stones must 
have true, straight surfaces and edges, 
with corners rounded to a radius of one- 
half inch, except the upper face corner 
shall have a radius of one inch; the 
ends must be true, with full square cor¬ 
ners, and when set there shall be not to 
exceed ono~fourth inch between the 
stones* Corners will be made with a 
face radius of two feet* twenty inches 
in depth, five inches thick at the ends, 
with corners rounded with one-half inch 
radii, except the upper face corner 
shall have radius of one inch, as 
shown on plan- 

Material and Proportions* 

Two parts of clean, coarse, sharp 
river sand to one part of the best Port¬ 
land cement, shall be used in making 
cemenc stone for all Its parts* No ve- 




241. 

riaticn will toe allowed -for any portion 
of the work. 

Dimensions and Shape of Cement Gutters 

The cement stone for gutters shall be 

thirty inches wide, five inches thick, 
and four feet long; and the divisions 
between the pieces must be perfect * com~ 
piete and at r1ght angles to the 1ength 
of the curb and gutter, so that any 
piece .after properly hardening, may be 
lifted from its place without wedging 
itself. 

Measurement 

Cement curbing and guttering will be 
measured, allowing the actual length to 
the intersection of the curb and gutter 
at corners, and no additional allowance 
will be mads for curved corner stones , 
nor for cutting to fit man-wholes • ca t ch.- 
basins . stop-fcoxeS, gas fixtures, or 
other improvements that cannot be read!" 
ly moved, and all fitting shall be done 
to the satisfaction of the City Engineer, 

Mixing * 

The materials, of the quality and in 
the proportions heretofore specified, 
Shall be thoroughly mixed while dry- un¬ 
til the mixture has an. even, uniform 
color: water shall then be added Slowly 



242. 

by sprinkling while the mixture is being 
thoroughly stirred and mixed, until an 
evenly dampened and complete 
mortar suitable for moulding is obtained. 
The mortar thus prepared shall be imme¬ 
diately placed in the mould as rapidly 
as it can be thoroughly rammed, until 
the mould is full and the top is fin¬ 
ished in the form heretofore specified* 
All measures of cement or sand shall 
be struck; they shall be level full» and 
not heaped or deficient in quantity. 
Cement work shall not be mixed or laid 
when the temperature is below thirty- 
five degrees? and all cement work shall 
be protected against damage, by fencing 
or otherwise? until hardened and the 
work accepted by the City Engineer? May¬ 
or and Council* 

All work is to be carefully set to the 
lines and grades as given by the City 
Engineer or has assistants? and the same 
maintained until accepted by the City 
Engineer, Mayor and Council - 
Samples and Tests- 

The contractor shall furnish samples 
of cement from eaeh barrel or package to 
•the City Engineer for test, and any 



cement found deficient in quality* ten¬ 
sile or crushing strength* shall be re¬ 
jected and immediately removed from the 
work* and no more of the same kind or 
brand shall be used until permission is 
given by the City Engineer after further 
tests which show the cement equal to the 
requirements * 

























Miles of Pavement in Various Cities. 


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5. 

Cost of Pavements per Square Yard. 
Broken Stone»Cobble Stone and Stone Block. 


r wm ■«. -r« mM~> ** 


Albany>N-Y- 
Allegheny »Pa. 
Boston »Mass. 

BrIdgeport,Conn. 
Buffalo »N.Y• 
Cincinnati,0. 
Columbus,0• 
Dayton > 0• 

Detroit »Mieh. 
Evansville »Ind• 
Fairfield,Conn. 
Fanwood»N. J . 
Indianapolis,Ind 
Kansas City»Mo- 
Kingston »R•I• 

Los Angeles»Cal« 



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1.70 
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$1.50 

t .50 


i 

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\ 

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1.10 


i 

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4.70 i 


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3.05 

2.25 


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6» 

Cost of Pavements per Square Yard. 
Broken Stone > etc . ~ Continued- 


4 

(SS cr *»2-‘ CC= 0tv 

8 



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5 

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4 

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[St .Paul »Minn. 

[Union Township ,11 

I Washington »D *C 


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7 ; 

;*av am ent s p er 
Wood Block 


Square Yard, 


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4 


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Detroit,Mich * » i.90* 

i i 

Duluth>Minu* J 1.90 

4 

Fort Wayne-Ind- i 

Grand Rapids »Mieh 2.00; 
Indianapolis,Ind* \ 

Lincoln * IT eh * I 1*71 

Milwaukee >¥is * 
Minneapolis .Minn 
Saginaw.Mich. 

Sioux City 7 .la¬ 
st .Paul.Minn * 


i1.80 > 1.70 


1. 

1. 


i 

20 ! 1.10 

.30 

I0i 


wl.SO ‘1.00 


* 


! 1.75 


Topeka »Kas- 


2 25 


8 
I 
i 

i 

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I 
j 
i 
l 
i 

s 1.22 

i 

J 1.20 
Jxl * 40 

4 


; i.7o 


. 15 
•» 88 
.92 


i 

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4 

f 

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4 

f 

ft 

■ft 

i 


jw- .*■=> 


All the above are cedar.block pavements 
with the exception of those marked thus * 


which are the Ficholson* 






8 . 


Cost of Pavements per Square Yard- 

Brick > 


TCBt> 

* 

a 

{ 

ma^ d~-u iM 



** 


«■* **■ 

One 

Layer• 


i 

I 

8 


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1 


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1 

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c 

8 


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1 


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lh 

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PQ 

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1 


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8 


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1 

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c 

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£ 

£ 

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o 

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o 

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l 

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1 


8 


8 


l 

8 


8 

2 . 

75* 


4 

8 


8 


i 


8 

i 

2.50 J 


1 

8 


k 

k 


8 

i 

2.60 ! 


1 

1 


k 

k 


8 

1 


8 


i 


8. 

1 


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1 * 

35i 


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11. 

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1 

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2.75 i 


i 

i 


i 

i 



Boston.Mass. 

Buffalo.N.Y. 

• 

Cincinnati>0. 

C X ev 6 X a nd »0 • 
Columbus,0• 

Des Moines,la- 
Detroit >Mich» 
Evansville >In&» 
Indianapolis,Ina 
Kansas City,Mo. 
Little Rock,Ark* 
Lincoln,Neb. 
Memphis,Tenn. 
Omaha,Neb» 
Philadelphia,Pa• 
Topeka .Kas- 


2,25 I 1.95 


! 2.50 I 


4 

! 

£ 

I. 

I 

I 

i 

1 

i 

s 

i 

1 

I 

) 

I 

4 

I 


I 

1.60 ! 

2.251 

8 

8 

2.68 ! 

1.76 t 

* 

I 

8 

I 

i 

i 











9 * 

* 

Cost of Pavements per Square Yard 

Asphalt. 




pm mm —»• 


Sheet. S Block. 


i 

i 

I 

I 

•4 

4 

I 

ft 

\ 

\ 


i 

i 

» 

I, 

l 

1 

i 

\ 

\ 

( 

t 

i 

T 

I 

i 

\ 

K 

i 


Albany >N.Y- 

Allegheny * Pa. 

Altoona * Pa. 

Boston,Mass. 
Buffalo ,N. Y • 

Cincinnati,0 • 

Columbus.0 * 

Dayton >0• 

Detroit>Mich * 

Grand Rapids,Mich 

Indianapolis*Ind. 

Kansas City,Mo. 

Lancaster >Pa. 

Los Angeles,-Cal« 

Louisville *Ky • 

Omaha,Neb. 

Philadelphia,Pa * 

Salt Lake City,TJ. 

St .Paul ,Minn. 

Syracuse,N .Y• 

Topeka,Kas. 

Washington »D-C. 


8 . 


3.15 

3.00 

3.64 
2.70 

3.00 

2.75 

3.20 

2.90 

2.83 

2.65 

2.70 
3.50 
2.48 
2,25 
3.00 
2.75 
2.70 
2.80 
2.25 


» 

» 

i 

8 

I 

I 

I 

8 

I 

I 

l 

% 

I 

8 

» 

l 

I 

{ 

1 

l 

4 

i 

8 

I 

I 

8 

8 

I 


1 

I 

I 

I 

4 

i 


2.64 


3.10 


3.52 


2.48 


2.00 i 


2.00 



























1 . 

Books 

on Subjects Relating to Highways * 

A Hove for Better Roads* 

Prize essays of Unlv*of Penn. 

Brick Pavements,Durability of* 

Gives an account of tests of paving 
brick. Prof.1.0.Baker. 

Good Roads.The Gospel of. 

Isaac B.Potter. 

Macadamized Roads,The Maintenance of. 

Thomas Codrington. 

Municipal and Sanitary Engineer a s Hand” 
book. H.Percy Boulnois. 

Pavements and Roads,Their Construction 
and Maintenance. A compilation of 
articles printed at various times in 
The Engineering and Building Record, 
with some additions. E.G.Love. 

Road Legislation for the American State. 

Jeremiah W.Jenks. 

Road Making,Present System of. 

J.L.Macadam. 


Roads and. Railroads. 


W-M.Gillespie 









Roads and Streets,Construction of. 

Henry Law and D.K.Clark 

Roads,A Treatise on. Sir Henry Parnell 

* 

Roads,Streets and Pavements. 

* 

Q,.A.Gillmore 

Streets and Highways in Foreign Coun¬ 
tries. Speeial Consular Reports. 








3. 


Articles in Periodicals 
on Subjects Relating to Highways. 

Asphalt Pavements in the United States. 

W.P.Rice. 

Eng.and Bld.Rec.May 26,1888,p.361. 

Also Pavements and Roads,p.120. 

tau mm co ma tstu 

Asphalt,The Nature and Uses of. 

Capt.Francis V.Greene. 
Eng.and Bid.ReCiVol.XIX,p.258. 

Also Pavements and Roads,p.115. 

Asphalt,On the Use of, in Engineering. 

W.H*Delano. 

Van Nos.Eng.Mag.Vol.XXIII,p.460. 

err gt-/ ma mm «d 

Asphalts. Dr.L.Meyer. 

Van Nos.Eng.Mag.Vol.VIII,p,74,etc• 

Brick. Vitrified Brick,The Roadway of 
the Future. Edward Stabler,Jr. 

Pav.and Mun.Eng.Jan»1891,p.177. 

par* 

French Roads,Their Administration.Con¬ 
struction and Maintenance. 

Prof.F-H*Neff. 
Jour.Assn.Eng.Soc.Jan.1892, 

Summary of same, 

Eng * and Bid•Rec•Apl•16,1892,p.327. 






4 . 


Pavement s . G. F. Deacon. 

Proc .Inst .C.E.Vol .LVIII ,p.l. 

Also Van Nos.Eng.Mag.Vol.XXIV,p.237. 

Pavements and Street Railroads. 

A series of articles in Eng.and Bid. 
Rec.beginning Sept.16,1886>p.369. 

Many of them are reprinted in Pave¬ 
ments and Roads. 

Pavements,Tel ford and Macadam. 

Gives the amount of work a man can do 
in a day at various parts of road mak¬ 
ing. A.P.Starrs. 

Paving Bricks and Brick Pavements. 

Chas.P.Chase. 

Eng.News,July 19&26,1890 *pp.55&70. 

Road Construction and Maintenance. Prize 
essays of the Eng.and Bid.Rec. 

Eng.and Bid.Rec.Mar.29,1890 >p .262,etc. 
Also Pavements and Roads,p.349. 

Also published as separate volume. 

Road Making. Prize essay. 

Clemens Herschel. 

Pavements and Roads>p.301• 








5. 


Roads and Road Making. 

Capt.Francis V.Greene. 
Harper's Weekly,Aug.10,1889. 

Also Eng.and Bid.Rec.Aug.10,1889»p.145 
Also Pavements and Roads,p.261• 

Roads,Construction and Maintenance of. 

Edward P.North. 

Trans.Am.Soc.C.E.Vol.VIII *pp.95 to 
147,and 353 to 380. 

Roads,The Repair and Maintenance of. 

V/.H. Wheeler. 

Eng. and Bid*Rec.June 25,1887,p.97. 

Also Pavements and Roads,p.251. 

Street Grade Intersections. F.A.Calkins. 
Eng.News,Feb.26 ,1887,etc. 

Stree4 Pavements,A Study of, 

Prof.Lewis M.Haupt. 
Jour.Frank.Inst.Dec * 1889,p.440. 

V/ood Pavements in London. 

Geo.H * Stayton. 
Proc.Inst.C.E.Vol.LXXVIII, 

Also Eng«and Bid.Rec.Aug.20&27,1887. 
Also Pavements and Roads,p.21. 










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Fig. 16. 


Fig. 17. 
























































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Fig. 10a. 


The Scrapers, Plow and Leveler,!as shown in Figs. 5 —10a, are manufacturedlby the Kilbourne & 

cobs Manufacturing Co., of Columbus, O. 

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Longitudinal Section Cross Section 

Fig. 18. 2 ft. x 2 ft. WOODEN CULVERT, 





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Fig. 19. 4 ft. x 6 ft. WOODEN CULVERT. 


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Fig. 20. 2 ft. x 2 ft. STONE BOX CULVERT. 

















































































































































































































Plan 



























































































Fig. 23. PIPE CULVERT. 



Side Elevation 


pi i a n i a i 






1 




L 





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Cross Section 


Fig. 24. PILE BRIDGE. 



Fig. 26. TRESTLE. 








































































































































































Fig. 27. 



Fig. 28. 



Fig. 29. 



Fig. 30. 


32 














































. 











































































Fig 34. Fig- 35. Fig. 36. 




















































Fig. 42. BOLLMAN TRUSS. 























































Fig. 44. 



Fig. 45. 



Fig. 46. 




































F ' 9 ' 48< Fig. 49. Fig. 50. Fig. 51. 



F| 9- 52. Fig. 53. Fig. 54. Fig. 54a. 
























































































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Fig. 56. TELFORD ROAD. 
































































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Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 

FARREL & MARSDEN STONE CRUSHER 
(Blake Style.) 





























































































































































• V- •/' ■ 


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Perspective View 


Sectional 


Fig. 59. GATES ROCK AND ORE BREAKER 

























































































Fig. 60. GATES ROCK AND ORE BREAKER 







































































































































































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Fig. 62. REVOLVING SCREEN. 







PORTABLE BREAKER 

Fig. 61. 







































































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63. AVEL1NG & PORTER STEAM ROLLER 































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































Fig. 64. HARRISBURG DOUBLE-ENGINE STEAM ROAD ROLLER 





























































. 




Fig. 67. 


t 

screenings 
2i* broken stone 


rubble foundation 



Fig. 68. 5th AVENUE, NEW YORK. 



Fig. 69. CHICAGO (Old). 


granite screenings 
gravel 

£*+o granite 
screenings 

^"to2^’stone 


Telford foundation 


BROKEN STONE ROADS. 




















































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Fig. 70. 



granite screenings 
z" stone 
screenings 
z’limestone 
Screenings 

2 jto a“ Stone 


Fig. 71. CHICAGO (New). 



screenings 

z "stone 


2jr‘ to 4-’ stone 


Fig. 72. 



BROKEN STONE ROADS. 

































































































































Fig. 76. ORDINARY GRAVEL ROAD. 



Fig. 77. GRAVEL ROAD, CENTRAL PARK, NEW YORK. 



Fig. 78. GRAVEL ROAD, CENTRAL PARK, NEW YORK. 



















Fig. 79. CORDUROY ROAD. 



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Fig. 81. MAP OF CHICAGO, ILL. 




































































































































































Fig. 82. MAP OF BOSTON, MASS. 






































































Fig. 83. MAP OF WASHINGTON, D. C. 
























































































































































































































Fig. 84. MAP OF INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































Fig. 85. 


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Fig. 87. 





































































































































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Fig. 88. EUROPEAN ROADS. 









































































































5+reds of Piria 




Fig. 89 


EUROPEAN STREETS. 






























































































































Fig. 90. AMERICAN STREETS. 





































































































































































































Fig. 96. Fig. 97. 











































































































































































































































































i-6% 1 


Granite blocks, 8-10 long ,3' : 4'wide, 7-8'deep 




Fig. 98. PROVIDENCE, R. I. 







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Fig. 99. CHICAGO, ILL. 


GRANITE BLOCK PAVEMENTS 

























































































Fig. 100. LIVERPOOL, FIRST.,CLASS. 


Granite blocks 4"4"*4‘ ' 



gravel 

Telford r 
foundation 



Fig. 101. LIVERPOOL, THIRD CLASS. 


GRANITE BLOCK PAVEMENTS 





























































































WOOD BLOCK PAVEMENTS. 









































































































































































































































4 


0 

Q 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 



Fig. 105. 



wood blocks 
board 

sand or gravel 


Fig. 106. NICHOLSON. 




wood blocks 
sand or gravel 



Fig. 107. STOWE. 


WOOD BLOCK PAVEMENTS. 










































































































































































































































I 



cedar 

blocks 

plank 

s+rrnger 

sand 



Fig. 109. CHICAGO. 




cedar 

blocks 

plank 

tfroPen stone 

Telford 

foundation 


Fig. 111. DULUTH. 


WOOD BLOCK PAVEMENTS. 



















































































































































































































































































































































































































sand 

brick 

sand 



Fig. 113. TOPEKA, KAN. 


BRICK PAVEMENTS 














































































































































































Fig. 114. DAVENPORT, IA. 




BRICK PAVEMENTS. 
























































































^ asphalt 
^ cement 
s concrete 


Fig 116. ROCK ASPHALT. 



asphalt 

cement 

concrete 


Fig. 117. TRINIDAD ASPHALT. 




^asphalt 
j biTum. concrete 
cement 
ssss concrete 



Fig. 118. TRINIDAD ASPHALT. 



asphalt 

blocks 

sand 



ASPHALT PAVEMENTS. 



























































































Fig. 122. STONE SLAB. 


/// 


N 
%- 

<i> 






cement 

concrete 

broken 

stone 


Fig. 123. CONCRETE. 



concrete blocks 
sand 



1 

1 

.1 

C0- 

T 

i 

i 

+ 




4 







Fig. 124. CONCRETE BLOCKS. 


SIDEWALKS, 
































Fig. 126. ASPHALT BLOCKS. 














































































CURBS AND GUTTERS, CENTRAL PARK, NEW YORK 










CURBS AND GUTTERS. 
























































\ 




















































* 

























